ASSINGMENT NO .

2
SUBMITTED TO MAM FARAH
SUBMITTED BY RIMSHA TARIQ
ROLL NO . 163253 GROUP NO . 6
TOPIC CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Q. 1. WHAT DO YOU KNOW ABOUT THE PATTERNS OF CURRICULUM ?GIVE IN DETAIL ?

THERE ARE SOME PATTERNS OF CURRICULUM ...CHILD CENTRED ,SUBJECT CENTRED ,CORE CENTRED
,INTEGRATED ETC .

CHILD CENTRED CURRICULUM Children

are the center of and the reason for an educational system. Logically then, the system should revolve
around the needs of the child. Instead, since the beginning of public schools, children have been made
to conform to the system. Natural curiosity and a child’s need to explore his world are not taken into
consideration in the school schedule. This has led to generations of failure and ever-increasing
dissatisfaction in our young people.

In 1993, the U.S. government released the results of a five-year, $14 million study of adult literacy in the
United States. This study showed that 21 to 23 percent of adults in America could not: locate information
in text, make low-level inferences using printed materials, or integrate easily identifiable pieces of
information. A follow-up study was performed by the same group of researchers in 2006. This study
showed that there was no statistically significant improvement in adult literacy.

The simple facts behind the statistics are that approximately 90 million Americans have problems with
such things as job applications and balancing a checkbook. They are unable to follow anything but the
simplest written directions. They must struggle through life trying to support themselves and their
families when they have not been given the proper tools to perform the skills required of them.

The current educational model is teacher-centered. This places students into passive roles in which
knowledge is given to them. The knowledge does not have meaning in the child’s life and therefore does
not engage the child in the act of learning. In a student-centered learning environment, children take an
active part in decisions about what they will learn and when they will learn it.

Each child is different and has different learning needs. A chief cause of boredom and therefore failure in
school is that children are forced to fit into the mold that is the standard classroom. Instead of having
real input in their own education, children are forced to simply follow the leader. Unfortunately the
leader, or classroom teacher, also has very little input into what she presents to her students. Curriculum
decisions are made in a place far removed from an actual classroom and students.

Because people do not really understand the system, some feel teachers are the problem; therefore,
they take much of the brunt of the dissatisfaction with our schools. This is both illogical and unfair. Every
year new teachers graduate from college and go into classrooms full of idealism and an honest desire to
make a difference in the lives of the children they teach. Every year thousands of teachers who have
been beaten down by the system give up and go into different careers that are less stressful and heart
breaking. It is the system that is broken, and until it is fixed not even the best and most devoted teachers
can make a real difference. Teachers cannot be expected to repair all the damages done by years of bad
policies and practices in the public school system.

National educational bodies create standardized tests and decide what appropriate scores on those tests
are. They then put pressure on state educational authorities to meet these standards. The state
authorities put pressure on the administrators of the local schools. The schools accreditation depends on
test scores, so school administrators put pressure on the teachers whose jobs depend on making sure
that students pass the tests. In the end it all filters down and the cumbersome weight of this entire
unrealistic and irrelevant system falls on the shoulders of our children.

Does all this mean children should not be tested? No, it means the material tested should be more
realistic and apply more directly to what children need to know. It also means the method of testing
should more accurately access a child’s ability and knowledge. Testing should be a normal part of the
learning process. Tests should be integrated into the system in a way that keeps them from causing
anxiety for students.

It is time to change the pattern from dependence on irrelevant tests and a teacher-centered classroom
to a system that revolves around the child. Children’s minds are incredible with a capacity for learning
that is amazing. One need only look into the eyes of a child when he sees something such as a butterfly
for the first time to understand there is an infinite sense of wonder there that can and should be tapped.
Tapping into that sense of wonder and fascination should be the primary focus of parents and of our
educational system.

Children should be guided to explore and understand their world in a way that increases their desire to
learn and to develop a meaningful relationship with their world. The curriculum should revolve around
the student’s needs and goals in life. This above all should be the aim of our public school system.
Instead the system has become an assembly line for churning out bored and dissatisfied young people
who can take in facts and regurgitate them on standardized tests in order to satisfy state standards that
have lost all relevant meaning.

Children are bored and dissatisfied with school because they have the common sense to understand
much of what they are being taught is not significant to their lives. This conflict between what they need
to know and what they are being taught can only lead to frustration and depression. Frustration and
depression can manifest itself as negative behaviors that can lead to discipline problems and possibly
serious mental health issues.

John Taylor Gatto, in his book Dumbing Us Down: The Hidden Curriculum of Compulsory Schooling says
we teach our children seven lessons in our public schools. He maintains these lessons are universal and
taught in all schools.

The first lesson is confusion. This is accomplished by teaching everything out of context. Children are
presented with a plethora of unrelated facts and expected to accept that learning these facts is the right
thing to do. It is as natural as breathing for a child to seek the meaning behind the facts, but meaning is
not taught, only facts and theories.

The second lesson our schools teach our children is class position. Children are put into a specific class
and indoctrinated into the belief that it is where they belong. This makes the process of education easier
for the school, but is not in any way beneficial for the child.

The third lesson children learn in school is indifference. This is subtle lesson but one that is accomplished
on a daily basis. Children are encouraged to participate and show great interest in the lesson that is
being presented in the time it is presented. Then the bell rings, and they must immediately change their
interest to another subject, usually totally unrelated to the first. This teaches children that nothing has
real importance; it is the schedule that is important.

Emotional dependency is the fourth lesson taught by our schools. Children have no real rights in a school
setting. Teachers control children by granting and withholding favors for accepted behavior. Children
desperately seek moments of privacy and independence in school, but maintain the control necessary,
this cannot be allowed.

Intellectual dependency is the fifth lesson needed to make the public school system work. Children must
become accustomed to being told what they need to learn and what they need to think. From the first
days of schooling, children learn that the teacher makes the rules and the teacher will tell them what
they need to learn. This guided learning does not leave room for exploration and natural curiosity. There
is only so much time in a school day, and that time is filled to overflowing with information that is
approved by the system.

The sixth lesson teachers teach is provisional self-esteem. In public schools children must conform to the
system in order for the system to function. Self-esteem or self-respect is based on so-called expert
opinion. Children are given tests, progress reports, and report cards to tell them how they are doing.
Parents have abdicated their rights in making decisions about a child’s well-being, instead allowing the
school system to tell them how their child is doing.

The seventh lesson children learn in school is that you can’t hide. Children are constantly under
surveillance when in school. This surveillance is carried into the home in the form of homework. Privacy
is alien to a system that seeks to control its members.

A standard classroom where 30 students sit in rows, speaking only when called upon to do so, for many
hours every day, is not conducive to creative thinking or any type of meaningful learning. It is this type of
regimented and restrictive environment that turns out children who have no tolerance for anybody who
is different from themselves. It creates young people who have issues with self-worth and are
disillusioned with life in general.

For those students who are unable to conform to the accepted standards of what is popular and
acceptable, life in the public school system can become a nightmare. Bullying and harassment are
common in public schools. Children are expected to sit in a classroom and concentrate when someone
who has bullied them physically or emotionally might be sitting in the desk right next to them. The
results of the stress caused by this type of situation can have tragic results. Suicide is the third leading
cause of death in young people from 15 to 24 and the fourth leading cause of death in children from 10
to 14. Among the reasons listed by the CDC for teenage suicides is inability to do well at school, feelings
of worthlessness, and rejection by friends or peers. We must ask ourselves why so many of our children
despair to the point of taking their own lives. How are we not meeting the needs of these children and
what can be done about it?

Free World U’s Life Skills curriculum addresses the issues that are important to young people.
Interpersonal relationships are covered extensively. This is a significant area in children’s lives, one in
which guidance is needed. What children learn about relationships can influence how they live their lives
and treat people. We provide guidance in areas such as sibling rivalry, romance and courtship,
communication, and abusive relationships. The Life Skills curriculum also has an extensive section
covering careers. This part of the curriculum gives a brief survey of many different career choices, giving
the student information about the steps involved in each choice. These careers do not only cover
professional careers but ordinary, everyday jobs many young people gravitate toward. At Free World U
we believe it is important to make sure students are well-informed about mental health. Mental
disorders are the leading cause of disability in the United States and Canada for people from 15 to 44. It
is important for students to understand what the symptoms and signs of mental disorders are in their
own lives and the lives of significant others. There is also a considerable amount of information in our
curriculum about addictive behaviors. We believe this will help the students recognize issues, hopefully
before they become problems. If indeed there are problems with addictive behaviors, we offer a clear
understanding of what they are and explain many avenues for receiving help, whether the problem is
that of the student or someone she cares about.

Many children who cannot adhere to the current standards set in our public schools are seen as
discipline problems, perhaps even classified as having learning disabilities. We believe many of these
problems will fade away once a student is allowed to make choices about his learning environment and
realize that he does have control of both his life and his actions.

Due to the current exam mentality, children are being robbed of an essential part of their childhood,
time to play. Almost any expert in child psychology will tell you play is an important part of a child’s day.
Recesses and creative outlets such as music and art are a thing of the past in many schools. School day
schedules are consumed by the volume of material that must be covered in order for the students to
perform well on the standardized tests. With Free World U’s methods, children learn up to seven times
faster than in a normal classroom environment. This frees up many hours in the day for children to
explore other interests. These interests will be as different as each child is different.

We believe what we teach children must be relevant to their lives in order for them to learn. Our
student-centered curriculum does not take anything away from what is now available; it adds to it and
adds the advantage of choice. Children who study through Free World U will learn the facts that they are
required to know, but they will also learn much more. They will learn how to live full and rewarding lives
guided by principles such as honesty, fair play, and a desire to be the best possible person they can be.
Our curriculum will help to integrate children into lives that are centered on family and community.
Parents and children will make decisions about learning. Without the artificial structure of public
schools, we believe a more natural order can be established that will be of great benefit to children and
to the future of our country. We believe in this way children will develop a true sense of their own self-
worth and be able to see what is worthy in the world around them
SUBJECT CENTRED CURRICULUM
Definition

The oldest, and perhaps most obvious way to organize curriculum is through a subject-centered
approach. This type of curriculum separates knowledge into various content areas. Modern schools,
particularly middle and high schools, tend to operate in this fashion. Students take classes in
English/language arts, math, science, social studies, fine arts, career and technical education, and so
forth.

History

Ancient Greek scholars, such as Aristotle, used a subject-centered approach to curriculum.

Ancient Greek scholars, such as Aristotle, used a subject-centered approach to curriculum.

The subject-centered approach to education can be traced to ancient Greek society. The scholars of
antiquity studied the seven liberal arts: music, grammar, astronomy, rhetoric, geometry, dialectic and
arithmetic. Modern day subject-centered curriculum began in the 1870s in the St. Louis school system,
headed by Superintendent William Harris.

Focus of Approach

In a subject-centered approach to curriculum, each content area contains its own set of skills and
concepts for mastering that content. For example, in science, students learn about the scientific method
and science-related vocabulary. This knowledge is then used when students conduct experiments and
investigations. In English, students are taught grammatical rules which they will need to produce
appropriate written products. Teachers in these subject areas are specialists in their content.

Types of Content

Schools that maintain a subject-centered approach categorize subjects into three different types.
“Common content” represents subjects all students must study. In elementary schools, this consists of
arithmetic, reading and writing (the three R’s). In secondary schools, these subjects include: math,
science, social studies/history and English/language arts. “Special content” describes classes that
prepare students for specific professions. These might include vocational and technical education
courses. “Elective content” refers to optional classes students can take to further their knowledge and
skills. These might include college courses taken while still in high school, advanced auto mechanics
courses, or special interest courses, such as photography or aeronautics.

Objectives and Accountability

The central objective for any subject-centered approach to curriculum is student mastery of content
knowledge. The teacher presents content and skills to students in a logical sequence. This step-by-step
approach ensures that students gain all the information and skills needed to master this content area.
There is little or no emphasis on the overlap of various subjects. Teachers only present the subject
matter from their individual subject and are only accountable for student mastery of their content area .
The Disadvantages of Subject-Centered Curriculum

By Carolyn Scheidies

Subject-centered curriculum doesn't take into account student experiences.

Subject-centered curriculum doesn't take into account student experiences.

Subject-centered curriculum has been around since Ralph Tyler released his book "Basic Principles of
Curriculum and Instruction" in 1949. His book became the foundation for the traditional or subject-
centered method of learning and is still used in most American public schools. This method focuses on
one subject at a time, building on knowledge gained. But this method doesn't engage the student nor
does it try to integrate knowledge gained in different subject areas.

Separation

Subject-centered curriculum prevents students from understanding the wider context of what they're
learning. In the traditional method of learning, students learn math in one period, reading in another,
science in another and social studies in yet another, separate class. Every subject is taught as though it
exists in and of itself without regard for how one subject impacts another subject. Teachers provide
math worksheets, which the students work to complete. Math problems are devoid of real-world
applications. The same goes for other subjects studied. Students may learn the history of Native
Americans but not how history both past and current impacts this segment of the American populace in
relation to their culture, American culture and the world at large.

Lack of Integration

Life isn't a series of separate events. How someone makes a decision depends upon many factors
including age, location, political climate and view and even how much sleep you had the night before. No
person is an island but is influenced by who that person is and the environment around him. A
traditional subject-centered curriculum so focuses on each subject in an individual context, students
don't understand how one subject impacts another subject or how each works together. Learning is
fragmented into little boxes instead of flowing together toward deeper comprehension of subject matter
as a whole. Students are not taught to use different aspects of their knowledge in an integrated fashion.

Passivity

In the traditional or subject-centered curriculum, students are discouraged from entertaining a different
point of view than what textbook or teacher presents. The subject matter has already been chosen by
experts in the different subjects, by school boards and by teachers and deemed of value for students to
learn. The subject matter is of critical importance, while students become little more than receptacles to
be filled, rather than thinking, rational individuals who need to be part of the learning process. The
subject-centered curriculum fosters not excitement about learning and knowledge, but passivity.

Authority

The traditional subject-centered curriculum depends upon a system of authority. Students are not part
of the authority hierarchy. Their needs are considered only in conjunction with type and difficulty level of
the material. Subject-centered learning does not offer a wide range of options that take into account
ethic background, family situations that impact learning or different learning styles of students. Material
is covered and does not change regardless of the needs of individual students or classes. The material
must be taught and students are expected to absorb the material in the time allotted. Testing, then, is
often based solely on regurgitating material and not on overall comprehension or the practical use of the
material in everyday life to solve problems.
CORE CURRICULUM
The Core Curriculum is the set of common courses required of all undergraduates and considered the
necessary general education for students, irrespective of their choice in major. The communal learning--
with all students encountering the same texts and issues at the same time--and the critical dialogue
experienced in small seminars are the distinctive features of the Core. Begun in the early part of the
20th century, the Core Curriculum is one of the founding experiments in liberal higher education in the
United States and it remains vibrant as it enters its tenth decade. Not only academically rigorous but also
personally transformative for students, the Core seminar thrives on oral debate of the most difficult
questions about human experience. What does it mean, and what has it meant to be an individual?
What does it mean, and what has it meant to be part of a community? How is human experience relayed
and how is meaning made in music and art? What do we think is, and what have we thought to be worth
knowing? By what rules should we be governed? The habits of mind developed in the Core cultivate a
critical and creative intellectual capacity that students employ long after college, in the pursuit and the
fulfillment of meaningful lives.in particular, the Core introduces students to ten central Knowledge Areas
of university learning, with a consistent focus on learning outcomes for those Areas. Core coursework
develops students' understanding through knowledge and experience in the Knowledge Areas of Artistic,
Historical, Literary, Quantitative Analysis, Scientific Literacy, Societal and Cultural, Philosophical,
Theological and Religious Studies, Ethics plus written communication. These requirements reinforce the
development of six Skills crucial to facing the challenges of contemporary society. Each course promotes
at least one of the following skills: communication, critical thinking, ethical awareness and decision-
making, information literacy, quantitative and qualitative analysis and research methods, and
technological literacy. Values Areas and the Core: Diversity, Justice, Spirituality and Faith, Engaged
Learning

Finally, Core courses integrate the understanding and promoting of four Values essential to a Loyola
education: understanding diversity in the US or the world; understanding and promoting justice;
understanding spirituality or faith in action in the world; and promoting engaged learning. Recent events
in our community, nation and world underscore the importance of diversity and why it has been a
foremost value of Loyola's University Core for many decades. Many courses in the Core were specifically
designed to highlight this important value. You may see the complete list of diversity courses here‌. In
addition, these courses are designated with a (D) in the course listings for each Knowledge Area. To
complete the Core and University Curriculum, students will take 16 courses across ten Knowledge Areas.
Two courses are required in six of these areas (Historical Knowledge, Literary Knowledge and Experience,
Scientific Literacy, Societal and Cultural Knowledge, Philosophical Knowledge and Theological and
Religious Studies Knowledge) Students will begin their studies in these six areas with a foundational (or
Tier I) course that will introduce them to critical ideas and methods of analyses in that area. After
completing the foundational course, students will have an array of options to further their studies by
taking one of a variety of Tier II classes to pursue their particular interests in more depth. The other four
areas (College Writing Seminar, Artistic Knowledge and Experience, Quantitative Literacy and Ethics)
require one course each. In addition to the Core Curriculum, students will have the opportunity to apply
their Loyola educations to real world experiences through the Engaged Learning University requirement.
This requirement is designed to support the mission of Loyola University Chicago to "expand knowledge
in the service of humanity through learning, justice, and faith". Students can satisfy this requirement by
taking an Engaged Learning course/s that total three credit hours or more. This course may be within
the Core Curriculum, in a student's major or minor, or an elective.
INTEGRATED CURRICULUM
The integrated curriculum is a great gift to experienced teachers. It's like getting a new pair

of lenses that make teaching a lot more exciting and help us look forward into the next

century. It is helping students take control of their own learning.

- M. Markus, media specialist, quoted in Shoemaker, September 1991, p. 797

I'm learning more in this course, and I'm doing better than I used to do when social studies

and English were taught separately.

- Student, quoted in Oster 1993, p. 28

This teacher and student express an increasingly widespread enthusiasm for curriculum integration.

While not necessarily a new way of looking at teaching, curriculum integration has received a great

deal of attention in educational settings. Based both in research and teachers' own anecdotal records of

success, educational journals are reporting many examples of teachers who link subject areas and

provide meaningful learning experiences that develop skills and knowledge, while leading to an

understanding of conceptual relationships.

Definitions

Integrated curriculum, interdisciplinary teaching, thematic teaching, synergistic teaching.... When

attempting to define integrated curriculum, it is also necessary to look at related terms. Several

definitions are offered here. As this paper is narrowed to K-12 integrated curriculum, definitions from

vocational and higher education are not included, although there is a growing interest in both of those

areas in the interdisciplinary, integrated curriculum. The reader interested in specifics about

interdisciplinary work in those fields is invited to consult the General References at the end of this

report.

A basic definition is offered by Humphreys (Humphreys, Post, and Ellis 1981) when he states, "An

integrated study is one in which children broadly explore knowledge in various subjects related to

certain aspects of their environment" (p. 11). He sees links among the humanities, communication arts,

natural sciences, mathematics, social studies, music, and art. Skills and knowledge are developed and

applied in more than one area of study. In keeping with this thematic definition, Shoemaker defines an

integrated curriculum as

...education that is organized in such a way that it cuts across subject-matter lines, bringing

together various aspects of the curriculum into meaningful association to focus upon broad

areas of study. It views learning and teaching in a holistic way and reflects the real world,

which is interactive. (1989, p. 5)

Within this framework there are varied levels of integration, as illustrated by Palmer (1991, p. 59), who

describes the following practices:

Developing cross-curriculum subobjectives within a given curriculum guide

Developing model lessons that include cross-curricular activities and assessments

Developing enrichment or enhancement activities with a cross-curricular focus including

suggestions for cross-curricular "contacts" following each objective

Developing assessment activities that are cross-curricular in nature

Including sample planning wheels in all curriculum guides.

Further description is provided by Glatthorn (1994, pp. 164-165).

Dressel's definition goes beyond the linking of subject areas to the creation of new models for

understanding the world:

In the integrative curriculum, the planned learning experiences not only provide the

learners with a unified view of commonly held knowledge (by learning the models,

systems, and structures of the culture) but also motivate and develop learners' power to

perceive new relationships and thus to create new models, systems, and structures. (1958,

pp. 3-25)

Another term that is often used synonymously with integrated curriculum is interdisciplinary

curriculum. Interdisciplinary curriculum is defined in the Dictionary of Education as "a curriculum

organization which cuts across subject-matter lines to focus upon comprehensive life problems or broad

based areas of study that brings together the various segments of the curriculum into meaningful

association" (Good 1973). The similarity between this definition and those of integrated curriculum is

clear. Jacobs defines interdisciplinary as "a knowledge view and curricular approach that consciously

applies methodology and language from more than one discipline to examine a central theme, issue,

problem, topic, or experience" (1989, p. 8). This view is supported by Everett, who defines

interdisciplinary curriculum as one that "combines several school subjects into one active project since

that is how children encounter subjects in the real world-combined in one activity."

These definitions support the view that integrated curriculum is an educational approach that prepares

children for lifelong learning. There is a strong belief among those who support curriculum integration

that schools must look at education as a process for developing abilities required by life in the
twentyfirst

century, rather than discrete, departmentalized subject matter. In general, all of the definitions of

integrated curriculum or interdisciplinary curriculum include:

A combination of subjects

An emphasis on projects

Sources that go beyond textbooks

Relationships among concepts

Thematic units as organizing principles

Flexible schedules

Flexible student groupings.

Several authors have gone beyond a single definition of curriculum integration to a continuum of
integration .
Q.2.WRITE THE FOLLOWING MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ?
THE TYLER MODEL .The Tyler Model, developed by Ralph Tyler in the 1940’s, is the quintessential
prototype of curriculum development in the scientific approach. One could almost dare to say that every
certified teacher in America and maybe beyond has developed curriculum either directly or indirectly
using this model or one of the many variations.

Tyler did not intend for his contribution to curriculum to be a lockstep model for development.
Originally, he wrote down his ideas in a book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction for his
students to give them an idea about principles for to making curriculum. The brilliance of Tyler’s model is
that it was one of the first models and it was and still is a highly simple model consisting of four steps.

Determine the school’s purposes (aka objectives)

Identify educational experiences related to purpose

Organize the experiences

Evaluate the purposes

Step one is determining the objectives of the school or class. In other words, what do the students need
to do in order to be successful? Each subject has natural objectives that are indicators of mastery. All
objectives need to be consistent with the philosophy of the school and this is often neglected in
curriculum development. For example, a school that is developing an English curriculum my create an
objective that students will write essays. This would be one of many objectives within the curriculum.

Step two is developing learning experiences that help the students to achieve step one. For example, if
students need to meet the objective of writing an essay. The learning experience might be a
demonstration by the teacher of writing an essay. The students then might practice writing essays. The
experience (essay demonstration and writing) is consistent with the objective (Student will write an
essay).

Step three is organizing the experiences. Should the teacher demonstrate first or should the students
learn by writing immediately? Either way could work and preference is determined by the philosophy of
the teacher and the needs of the students. The point is that the teacher needs to determine a logical
order of experiences for the students.
Lastly, step four is evaluation of the objectives. Now the teacher assesses the students ability to write an
essay. There are many ways to do this. For example, the teacher could have the students write an essay
without assistance. If they can do this, it is evidence that the students have achieve the objective of the
lesson.

There are variations on this model. However, the Tyler model is still considered by many to be the
strongest model for curriculum development.
THE WHEELER MODEL .

The Wheeler model of curriculum development (1967), or cyclic model, asserts that curriculum should
be a continuous cycle which is responsive to changes in the education sector and makes appropriate
adjustments to account for these changes. It focuses on situational analysis: the context in which the
curriculum decisions are taken is considered important, as this is believed to help make the most
effective decisions. This model is comprised of five interconnected stages:

Aims, goals and objectives

Selection of learning experiences

Selection of content

Organisation and integration of learning experiences and content

Evaluation

Once the cycle has been followed once, it begins again at step one and continues onward to
continuously improve the curriculum in the face of any changes that may have been imposed or come
about naturally. It is different from other models in that ‘selection of learning experiences’ comes before
‘selection of content’: it specifically gears the content in the curriculum to learners, where most models
follow the opposite structure. Wheeler viewed evaluation as particularly important, stating that
‘[e]valuation enables us to compare the actual outcomes with the expected outcomes […] [without it] it
is impossible to know whether objectives have been realized, and if they have, to what extent’ (Wheeler,
1976, cited in Carl, 2009). While Wheeler’s approach, like other cyclical models, has been popular in
teaching practice for its flexibility and relevance to learners in particular situations, it is not always
practical to use because of time constraints. Undertaking a detailed situational analysis that Wheeler
advocates is a time-consuming process that can be difficult to put into practice in the hectic conditions in
modern educational practice. DENIS LAWTON
Lawton (1983 : 27) Suggests two approaches to cultural analysis :

the classificatory and the interpretive . the classificatory method involves

checklists , tables and elaborate systems of classification , whereas the

interpretive method is concerned with looking at the Culture as a whole.

Some anthropologists have attempted elaborate system of classification

of simple societies by listing such key characteristics as kinship system ,

economic features ,religious beliefs . the problem with this method is that it

becomes impossible to make generalization because it is seconded with

the wealth of details .

On the other hand , the educationist attempts to analyze his own society

which has some advantages over an anthologist in simple society . the

educationist , however , suffers from the disadvantage of looking at his

own society through his own ideology or belief system . so , he , tends to

take some aspects of culture for granted and assumes the value of certain

practice and the power of tradition.

Raymond (1976 :46)

In an attempt to see how the curriculum in society is derived from the

unique Culture of that society , it is necessary to ask detailed question

about knowledge skills and values , Thus , Culture analysis when applied

to curriculum planning would ask

 a-What kind of society already exists ?

 b-In what ways is it developing ?

 c-How do its members appear to want it to develop ?

 d-What kind of values and principles will be involve deciding on

(e) and on the educational means of achieving ?

Taba (1962:98) and Lawton (1983:65) agree that Culture analysis also

involves asking questions about the extent to which a school system

matches the needs of society . they also add that , in the process of

developing a method of matching the needs of individual children living in a

specific society by means of a carefully planned curriculum . This selection

from culture is made by analyzing the kind of society that exists and

mapping out the kind of knowledge and the kind of experience that are

most appropriate this process requires three kinds of classification

First : deciding on major parameters

Second : outlining a method of analysis which can be used to describe

any given society and making use of those parameters .

Third : means of classifying the educationally desirable knowledge and

experiences . Ibid (1983:65)

3-Criteria for Making Selection of Culture Elements

Lawton (1973 : 153) puts forward three criteria for making selection

from Culture . He introduced these three critiria in terms of questions which

might be applied to possible curriculum contents ; they are :

 1-Is it worth while ?

 2-Is it relevant

 3-What is the best way of organizing this for efficient Learning ?

Each criterion as identified above is discussed below

3-1 the criterion of value

This criterion was put clearly when Herbert Spenser posed the question

in one of his essays on Education what is of most worth ? He

answered this question in relation to science as the relevant subject matter

for the school main purpose to prepare children and youth for complete

living . for Spencer ,science is the key to complete living : for preservation

for health , earning a living , good citizenship , highest production and

enjoyment of the arts and intellectual and moral discipline .

Spencer’s view that the purpose of the school should be focused on

effective living , good citizenship , highest production and enjoyment of the

arts and intellectual and moral discipline .

Spencer ‘s view that the purpose of the school should be focused on

effective living that the knowledge key to school life in society is science .

this comes as a result of distorted classical studies for being irrelevant to

modern living ,Tanner and Tanner(1975:100)

Lawton adds in his discussion of value some criteria to be suitable

under the heading of Value . He confines the discussion to a limited ,

philosophical view of value that is the unchanging aspects of education :

those permanent human qualities which most ages value sufficiently to

3-2 The Criterion of relevance.

The question of relevance is somewhat easier to resolve , whereas

philosophers tend to be concerned with the constant of invariable criteria ,

under the heading of social relevance . the particular criteria technological

and society includes not only the changing technological and social

conditions , but also ideas equality , and firmness .

Obviously , one of the main effects of considering relevance as a criteria

for selection curriculum for school is to avoid treating knowledge in an

entirely abstract and theoretical way , but to relate it to the real everyday

world This means that contemporary issues (pollution or violence ) and

should be linked with academic knowledge wherever possible . This is

considered an important aspect of common culture .

3-3 Psychological Aspects

The psycho logic criteria are procedural rather than matters of principle ,

concerned with how learning should take place rather than why .
This criterion also relates not only to what can most usefully be taught

at a given time , but also to what should be taught (giving certain basic

aims) . thus , the model used so far is not entirely correct and should rather

be thought of as in the diagram , below

Fig (1) Psychological Elements

Philosophical Sociological

Selection from Culture

Curriculum

psychological

Lawton (1983:37) states eight features as the major heading for making

selections from culture. After examining these features it seems that they

are interrelated and their influence each other. These features described

and identified as follows.

3-3-1 Social structure

All societies have some kind of social structure that is some system of

defining relationship within society as a whole. Kinship, status, role, duty

and obligation are the key social concepts which not only exist in every

society, but to passed on to the next generation.

Lawton(1983:38) adds that social structure is simple in some societies

and complex in others. The social structure is closely related to economic

and technological factors. For example when western European societies

are rural and agricultural, the dominant factor in social relationship is the

possession or non-possession of land, but as trade and industry developed

and became less important than capital or the ownership of the means of

production.
3-3-2 Economic system

Every society has some means of dealing with the problem f scarce

resources, their distribution and exchange in some societies, the economic

arrangements are simple, involving barter, in other societies the economic

system is complex. Some say that the link between education and

economy should be the dominant one simply because the purpose of

cultural analysis is to emphasize the features.

3-3-3 Communication System

In all societies, human beings communicate with each other. One of the

major differences between man and other animals is the existence of

human language.

In many societies speech is not the only form of communication for

example; some societies have developed various kinds of writing it has

often been pointed out by sociologists and social historians that the

development of print has made enormous differences to the type of society

which developed.

Most societies have visual symbols of some importance such nonspeech

forms of communication are required less than speech, and some

kind of teaching and learning process is involved for the purpose of

educational analysis, the development r writing and of print of great

significance. This is because print makes specialized knowledge available,

but at the same time encourages the tendency for printed knowledge to be

highly specialized.

3-3-4 Rationality System

All societies are rational in the sense of having a view about what is
reasonable, and what counts as an explanation in terms of cause and

effect. But without any kind of rationality, any kind of communication would

be impossible. Any kind of explanation is accepted as rational will

,however, vary from one society to another or from time to another with a

given society, so that whereas one group might explain man being

attracted to a woman in terms of "love" another group might invoke

Freudian

Theory, another magic or witchcraft. These explanations are seen by

anthropologists as different expressions of rationality rather than as being

right or wrong explanation.

Levy strauss (1966:87) (as cited by Lawton) classifies societies as "hot"

or "cold". "hot" societies are characterized by scientific thinking, whereas

"cold" socities are time suppressing and they rely on myth rather than

science and history to explain their universe.

3-3-5 Technology system

Early man developed tools to build shelter from the climate, and to kill

animals for food; later to produce food by various kind of agriculture.

All human beings are technologists in the sense of being tool users, and

make progress by passing on their developing technology, with the

improvement to the next generation.In some societies, technology is

simple, whereas, in other societies the difficulty lies on how to cope with

the transmission of knowledge and the problem of allocating of selecting

different individuals for certain kinds of learning. He also adds that it is

possible to classify a society according to the dominant system of

technology "is it simple or complex?" Is the society at the pre-industrial or

post-industrial state of development?

3-3-6 Morality system

Another characteristic that all human beings have in common is that

they possess a sense of "the moral". All societies have some kind of code

of ethics and they distinguish between right and wrong behavior. In some

societies, the moral code is unitary and taken for granted; in other

socializing the young is much more difficult-total agreement is lacking, yet

some kind of rules of behavior need to be transmitted. When moving from

cultural in variants to cultural variables the main ways of categorizing

morality systems include analyzing the dominant system as, for example

religious or secular.

3-3-7 Belief system

This system is closely connected with morality system. it is also related

to religious dogma and divine revelation of myths about the origins of the

community, in other societies, these links have become weakened or the

prevailing belief system is entirely secular. For example, having a belief in

scientific explanation where "man is the measure of all things". In some

societies, the problem of educating the young and passing on a belief

system is much more difficult, not least because the young will be

encouraged to question and criticize the simply learn and accept.

3-3-8 Aesthetic System

All human beings have aesthetic drives and needs. Every society

produces some kind of art and entertainment fr its members. One of the

interesting features of human life is enormous variety of aesthetic forms,

but nowhere is a sense of the aesthetic absent.

Raymend Williams (1981:65) as cited by Lawton discusses culture in

relation to attempts to categories societies according to aesthetic stages.

He adds that it is sufficient to take into account some classification that

counts as "Art" in any society, establishing boundaries between the Arts

and examining the relationships between categories. Finally it is very

important to analyze the relation between sub-divisions within aesthetic

system and the other seven systems; in that respect the complex

relationship with all the other systems will be important.

4- Conclusion

No matter what curriculum addresses, culture is always one of its

important aspects, it has been found out that culture should process the

following derived from conventional sociological and anthropological

definition of society. All societies have means of transmitting elements from

one generation to the next. Some societies, will achieve this cultural

transmission party through educational institutions including formal

schooling.
Q.3.DISCUSSS ISSUES AND TRENDS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ? It
is mandated in the Constitution of Pakistan to provide free and compulsory education to all children
between the ages of 5-16 years and enhance adult literacy. With the 18th constitutional amendment the
concurrent list which comprised of 47 subjects was abolished and these subjects, including education,
were transferred to federating units as a move towards provincial autonomy.

The year 2015 is important in the context that it marks the deadline for the participants of Dakar
declaration (Education For All [EFA] commitment) including Pakistan. Education related statistics coupled
with Pakistan’s progress regarding education targets set in Vision 2030 and Pakistan’s lagging behind in
achieving EFA targets and its Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) for education call for an analysis of
the education system of Pakistan and to look into the issues and problems it is facing so that workable
solutions could be recommended.

What is Education System?

The system of education includes all institutions that are involved in delivering formal education (public
and private, for-profit and nonprofit, onsite or virtual instruction) and their faculties, students, physical
infrastructure, resources and rules. In a broader definition the system also includes the institutions that
are directly involved in financing, managing, operating or regulating such institutions (like government
ministries and regulatory bodies, central testing organizations, textbook boards and accreditation
boards). The rules and regulations that guide the individual and institutional interactions within the set
up are also part of the education system.

Education system of Pakistan:

The education system of Pakistan is comprised of 260,903 institutions and is facilitating 41,018,384
students with the help of 1,535,461 teachers. The system includes 180,846 public institutions and 80,057
private institutions. Hence 31% educational institutes are run by private sector while 69% are public
institutes.

Analysis of education system in Pakistan

Pakistan has expressed its commitment to promote education and literacy in the country by education
policies at domestic level and getting involved into international commitments on education. In this
regard national education policies are the visions which suggest strategies to increase literacy rate,
capacity building, and enhance facilities in the schools and educational institutes. MDGs and EFA
programmes are global commitments of Pakistan for the promotion of literacy.

A review of the education system of Pakistan suggests that there has been little change in Pakistan’s
schools since 2010, when the 18th Amendment enshrined education as a fundamental human right in
the constitution. Problems of access, quality, infrastructure and inequality of opportunity, remain
endemic.

Issues

A) MDGs and Pakistan

Due to the problems in education system of Pakistan, the country is lagging behind in achieving its MDGs
of education. The MDGs have laid down two goals for education sector:

Goal 2: The goal 2 of MDGs is to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE) and by 2015, children
everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. By the year
2014 the enrolment statistics show an increase in the enrolment of students of the age of 3-16 year
while dropout rate decreased. But the need for increasing enrolment of students remains high to
achieve MDGs target. Punjab is leading province wise in net primary enrolment rate with 62%
enrolment. The enrolment rate in Sindh province is 52%, in Khyber Pakhtunkhawa (KPK) 54% and
primary enrolment rate in Balochistan is 45%.

Goal 3: The goal 3 of MDGs is Promoting Gender Equality and Women Empowerment. It is aimed at
eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005 and in all levels of education
not later than 2015. There is a stark disparity between male and female literacy rates. The national
literacy rate of male was 71% while that of female was 48% in 2012-13. Provinces reported the same
gender disparity. Punjab literacy rate in male was 71% and for females it was 54%. In Sindh literacy rate
in male was 72% and female 47%, in KPK male 70% and females 35%, while in Balochistan male 62% and
female 23%.

B) Education for All (EFA) Commitment

The EFA goals focus on early childhood care and education including pre-schooling, universal primary
education and secondary education to youth, adult literacy with gender parity and quality of education
as crosscutting thematic and programme priorities.

EFA Review Report October 2014 outlines that despite repeated policy commitments, primary education
in Pakistan is lagging behind in achieving its target of universal primary education. Currently the primary
gross enrolment rate stands at 85.9% while Pakistan requires increasing it up to 100% by 2015-16 to fulfil
EFA goals. Of the estimated total primary school going 21.4 million children of ages 5-9 years, 68.5% are
enrolled in schools, of which 8.2 million or 56% are boys and 6.5 million or 44% are girls. Economic
Survey of Pakistan confirms that during the year 2013-14 literacy remained much higher in urban areas
than in rural areas and higher among many

C) Vision 2030

Vision 2030 of Planning Commission of Pakistan looks for an academic environment which promotes the
thinking mind. The goal under Vision 2030 is one curriculum and one national examination system under
state responsibility. The strategies charted out to achieve the goal included:

(i) Increasing public expenditure on education and skills generation from 2.7% of GDP to 5% by
2010 and 7% by 2015.

(ii) Re-introduce the technical and vocational stream in the last two years of secondary schools.

(iii) Gradually increase vocational and technical education numbers to 25-30% of all secondary
enrolment by 2015 and 50 per cent by 2030.

(iv) Enhance the scale and quality of education in general and the scale and quality of
scientific/technical education in Pakistan in particular.

Problems: The issues lead to the comprehension of the problems which are faced in the development of
education system and promotion of literacy. The study outlines seven major problems such as:

1) Lack of Proper Planning: Pakistan is a signatory to MDGs and EFA goals. However it seems that it
will not be able to achieve these international commitments because of financial management issues
and constraints to achieve the MDGs and EFA goals.

2) Social constraints: It is important to realize that the problems which hinder the provision of
education are not just due to issues of management by government but some of them are deeply rooted
in the social and cultural orientation of the people. Overcoming the latter is difficult and would require a
change in attitude of the people, until then universal primary education is difficult to achieve.
3) Gender gap: Major factors that hinder enrolment rates of girls include poverty, cultural constraints,
illiteracy of parents and parental concerns about safety and mobility of their daughters. Society’s
emphasis on girl’s modesty, protection and early marriages may limit family’s willingness to send them to
school. Enrolment of rural girls is 45% lower than that of urban girls; while for boys the difference is 10%
only, showing that gender gap is an important factor.

4) Cost of education: The economic cost is higher in private schools, but these are located in richer
settlements only. The paradox is that private schools are better but not everywhere and government
schools ensure equitable access but do not provide quality education.

5) War on Terror: Pakistan’s engagement in war against terrorism also affected the promotion of
literacy campaign. The militants targeted schools and students; several educational institutions were
blown up, teachers and students were killed in Balochistan, KPK and FATA. This may have to contribute
not as much as other factors, but this remains an important factor.

6) Funds for Education: Pakistan spends 2.4% GDP on education. At national level, 89% education
expenditure comprises of current expenses such as teachers’ salaries, while only 11% comprises of
development expenditure which is not sufficient to raise quality of education.

7) Technical Education: Sufficient attention has not been paid to the technical and vocational
education in Pakistan. The number of technical and vocational training institutes is not sufficient and
many are deprived of infrastructure, teachers and tools for training. The population of a state is one of
the main elements of its national power. It can become an asset once it is skilled. Unskilled population
means more jobless people in the country, which affects the national development negatively. Therefore,
technical education needs priority handling by the government.

Poverty, law and order situation, natural disasters, budgetary constraints, lack of access, poor quality,
equity, and governance have also contributed in less enrolments.

An analysis of the issues and problems suggest that:

The official data shows the allocation of funds for educational projects but there is no mechanism which
ensures the proper expenditure of those funds on education.

The existing infrastructure is not being properly utilized in several parts of the country.

There are various challenges that include expertise, institutional and capacity issues, forging national
cohesion, uniform standards for textbook development, and quality assurance.

The faculty hiring process is historically known to be politicized. It is because of this that the quality of
teaching suffers and even more so when low investments are made in teachers’ training. As a result
teachers are not regular and their time at school is not as productive as it would be with a well-trained
teacher.

Inside schools there are challenges which include shortage of teachers, teacher absenteeism, missing
basic facilities and lack of friendly environment.

Out of school challenges include shortage of schools, distance – especially for females, insecurity,
poverty, cultural norms, parents are reluctant or parents lack awareness.Trends in Core Curriculum
Development

Before we delve into the many trends in core curriculum development, it’s important that we define the
term. First, we should distinguish it from the Common Core, a frequently expressed term in education
today. The Common Core is a state standards initiative that details what K-12 students should know in
the areas of English and mathematics at the end of each grade level. The Common Core has been
adopted by the majority of states in the U.S., and schools are implementing it now. The Common Core
initiative is one example of an outcome of core curriculum development.

Core curriculum development

Core curriculum development is a facet of the field of curriculum and instruction. Professionals in this
area work with governments, school districts, administrators, teachers, and students to analyze existing
core curricula, develop new curricula, and evaluate outcomes. Core curricula is the collection of
materials, methodologies, assessments, and sometimes pedagogies that teach students the “basics” in
subjects such as math, science, social studies, and English. The core typically consists of those common
courses required of all students within the realm of general education.

Within the specialty of curriculum development, there are several trends:

The Common Core: as mentioned, the Common Core is an initiative of the U.S. government. This a more
regimented style of education that creates common standards for students across the learning spectrum.
It has an internationally inspired benchmark whose intention is to prepare students for success in college
and beyond. Within this curriculum, students move at a relatively fast and uniform pace to meet the
objectives of a program. Standard and universal metrics measure and determine students’ success.

Digital delivery: educators and students throughout the country and world are turning to online sources
to find reliable, valuable, and current information[i]. Consistent with this trend, many curricula
emphasize digital teaching and learning in and out of the classroom. Numerous online programs exist to
give educators and students access to materials, assignments, pedagogies, and online platforms to learn
core and other subjects. In addition to enhancing traditional education, this trend further develops
alternative education, distance education, and home education.

Interest-driven education: just as colleges have historically given students opportunities to follow their
interests by choosing majors, minors, and electives, “the idea of K-12 education being tailored to
students’ own interests is becoming more commonplace[i]”. Numerous schools, especially private and
charter schools, let students select “tracks” of learning based on their own goals and interests. In such
programs, students work with advisors to design their courses of study, and teachers deliver more
tailored and specialized curricula.

Individualized education: the Common Core and numerous other curricula emphasize equality and
similarity between students and their knowledge, learning styles, and learning paces. However, more
and more, educators are creating and implementing other curricula that emphasize the diverse needs of
individuals. This is a trend that embraces alternative pedagogies such as Critical Pedagogy and other
non-banking methods of education and assessment. These curricula emphasize students’ distinct
interests, learning styles, paces of learning, and needs in and out of the classroom.

21st Century skill-driven curricula: much of education today follows a trajectory set decades ago. More
recently, however, a new trajectory has emerged in many areas of education, and skills such as
“collaboration, innovation, critical thinking, and communication are thought to be just important as U.S.
history and calculus because they’re practical skills[i]”. Skills such as these become practical in our digital
era in which students’ abilities to assess quality of information, think critically about issues, and adapt
quickly to changing technologies and work environments is paramount. And, as more companies
emphasize collective creativity, skills in collaborative thinking and innovative implementation become
critical. Accordingly, many schools are implementing curricula that teaches these newly vital skills.

Trends in Creative Curriculum Development

Creative curriculum uses “the latest research and best practices[ii]” to provide early childhood educators
with resources that “create a high-quality learning environment that enables every child to become a
creative, confident thinker[ii]”. The Creative Curriculum is based on “38 objectives for development and
learning” that are “fully aligned with the Head Start Child Development and Early Learning Framework
and state early learning standards[iii]”.

Teachers today use Creative Curriculum as a resource to enhance existing curricula or as a primary
curriculum. Creative Curriculum also provides resources and coaching to parents and family members
with infants, toddlers, and preschoolers.

Technology and Curriculum Development

While much of schools’ core curriculum has been delivered via voice and hardcopy, today’s educational
environment invites teachers’ use of technology.

Both elective and core curriculum benefit from teachers’ incorporation of technology in the classroom.
Using technology can better prepare students to work in industries heavily dependent on technology,
and teachers can keep many students more engaged by employing relevant, innovative, and engaging
technology in the classroom. Given technology’s place in society, this is likely to be an ever-evolving and
central theme in education’s present and future.
Q.4.WRITE THE ROLE OF HEC IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ?
Higher education is seen as critical to Pakistan’s development as a moderate and democratic nation, as
well as its role in improving the country’s economy by channelising its youth, which constitute around
one-third of its population, to become productive citizens. During the last decade, it has received a great
deal of attention from the government and the international agencies, and the Higher Education
Reforms were introduced to resolve the innumerable problems that continued to plague the colleges
and universities. On the recommendations of the task force and a steering committee constituted by
President Musharraf in 2000, the Higher Education Commission (HEC) was set up in 2002 to address the
virtual state of collapse of the higher education system. The HEC replaced the earlier University Grants
Commission and also assumed the roles and responsibilities of the Ministry of Higher Education.

The HEC, in its Medium Term Development Framework 2005-2010, projected that in terms of access, the
plan aimed at doubling the enrollment of students from the current 2.9 percent to 5.0 percent in 2010,
and 10 percent by 2015. The HEC deserves credit for achieving this goal with the expansion of
universities from 60 to 124 during this period.

In terms of quality, the HEC had to face a more challenging task. The HEC reforms proposed a number of
steps. Faculty development was considered to be of utmost importance, and the strategy proposed was
to drastically increase the number of PhDs from 1,700 in the 60 public sector universities to 15,000-
20,000 during the five-year period. The plan also included faculty training by the National Academy of
Higher Education to enhance their pedagogy, communication, and information and communications
technology (ICT) skills. The reforms also laid stress on innovative research and dissemination of findings
through publications by the faculty to be supported through research grants.

For successful implementation of the reforms, higher education in Pakistan received a tremendous boost
in terms of financial support by the state and international donors. The government of Pakistan at the
onset provided support by raising the annual budget allocation for higher education from $ 15 million to
$ 150 million, and increased the funds for science and technology from $ 3 million to $ 100 million.
Currently, the total budget for higher education is Rs 18,416 million.

The international donors also assisted the HEC reforms through generous awards for faculty
development, teacher education, research, and links with prestigious universities abroad. The US
government, after the 9/11 attacks, gave priority to Pakistan’s education reforms, and has been the
largest donor to support its higher education reforms. A five-year $ 100 million agreement was signed
with USAID in the initial period that tripled three years later.

The attention to reforming higher education and the injection of funds to bring about qualitative
improvements in the graduates produced by the Pakistani universities and colleges has been viewed with
interest by all stakeholders. There has been a great deal of scepticism amongst the academics about the
multiple roles assigned to the HEC, as the reforms have not only imposed on it an external regulatory
body role similar to that of the former University Grants Commission, but has also granted it powers to
assign funding to higher education institutions according to various criteria for gauging infrastructure
and performance.

Faculty development is being steered by the HEC where the ultimatum goal is to increase the number of
PhD faculty. Moreover, all promotions of higher education faculty to professorial ranks are subject to the
requirement of holding a PhD degree along with a number of research publications. These requirements
have created a lot of confusion amongst the majority of those who do not hold a PhD degree, and have
limited or no facilities for engaging in research work or to publish articles, leading to frustration and low
motivation. What the HEC perhaps did not envisage was that, with the tenure track requirement, there
would be more losers than winners. The majority of faculty, particularly in degree colleges, feels
handicapped with this requirement. Moreover, those with aspirations to move ahead have been left at
the mercy of a system that is deficient in providing them with a clear map how to develop themselves as
per their needs and interests during their teaching career.

The achievements of the HEC in terms of faculty development have not been impressive so far. As per
the HEC Report (2002-2008), a total of 6,749 PhDs have been funded since 2003, of which the majority is
in the area of science and technology. The HEC Report states that of the 2,825 foreign PhDs, a total of 65
had returned by 2008, and of the 3,516 indigenous PhDs, only 15 had completed their higher studies.
Although the total number of PhDs produced from 2000-8 are listed as 613 in the Economic Survey, it is
worth noting that the percentage of PhD faculty in universities actually decreased from 28.9 percent in
2001-2 to 22 percent in 2007-8, due to an overall increase in faculty numbers.

The HEC’s professional development courses have also not achieved their target of training 100 percent
of higher education faculty because these courses are not mandatory and are offered as per availability
of resources. Moreover, the faculty lacks motivation to avail these courses, as the courses are not
credited and do not lead to any rewards in terms of increments or promotions.

To achieve desired results in improving the quality of higher education there is a dire need to focus on
faculty development by adopting a more innovative approach than the top down, elitist and rigid policy
adopted by the HEC from 2002-2010. The current situation regarding faculty development raises the
following questions for research what do we understand by the term ‘faculty development’ what should
be the objectives of the new policy and what would be the drivers of success?

It should be mandatory for faculty in higher education institutions to partake in faculty development
programmes that include advanced courses for specialised knowledge, courses in pedagogy to improve
teaching practices, and research activities

The expectations of all stakeholders about improvements in the quality of teaching learning have been
high due to the attention given to higher education in the last decade. The lack of a relevant faculty
development policy framework as well as incentives has made faculty development sporadic and
ineffective. Despite a large injection of funds from international donors during the last eight years into
the higher education reforms, there has been no visible impact on the quality of Pakistani graduates.

A suitable framework for faculty development is one that focuses on professional roles and activities
such as research and curriculum development adopts a development approach and a constructive
rationale, rather than a remedial approach emphasises the centrality of the university and support of
senior management and is faculty-centred, not administratively directed is structured university- or
campus-wide and not by department and has a reward system for faculty members.

The student outcomes that this framework is geared towards are in keeping with Pakistan’s Vision 2030
and includes the ability to communicate to engage in critical thinking and moral reasoning to acquire a
breadth of interests to prepare as citizens who can live with diversity in a more global society and finally
to prepare for work.
A recent study undertaken by the author on higher education faculty development policy and practice
that involved a sample of the HEC-funded scholars studying in Pakistan and abroad since 2002, as well as
a sample of public and private universities and colleges, provides interesting results. A marked difference
amongst the overseas and Pakistan-based scholars was observed where the Pakistani scholars reported
facing more difficulties in higher studies, particularly in accessing online resources and reading materials,
as well as in funding. The foreign-based scholars also felt that their higher studies had a more positive
impact on student outcomes in terms of developing independent learning and critical thinking skills. As a
result, the Pakistan-based scholars rated the current faculty development policy in higher education less
favourably.a

The study also revealed marked differences in faculty development programmes and activities currently
available in colleges and universities. It was seen that colleges had very few programmes as compared to
universities. Principals of colleges reported a bias by the HEC in favour of university teachers regarding
opportunities for faculty development. It was also interesting to note that faculty development spending
in both colleges and universities emphasised higher studies and professional development programmes
were largely ignored.

The study highlights the need to develop a vision for Pakistan’s higher education faculty that empowers
them as teachers, specialists and researchers through holistic faculty development programmes, leading
to qualitative improvements in student outcomes and transforming higher education. Some policy
recommendations for faculty development in higher education are being put forward for discussion.
These include making it the foremost responsibility of all concerned to provide full support for
development of higher education faculty in terms of providing opportunities, guidelines, and incentives.

Following this, it should be mandatory for faculty in higher education institutions to partake in faculty
development programmes that include advanced courses for specialised knowledge, courses in
pedagogy to improve teaching practices, and research activities to enable them to engage in research
and scholarly work. It must be recognised that in view of the dearth of PhD faculty teaching
undergraduate programmes, it is not pragmatic or financially viable to make PhD a requirement for their
promotions to professorial ranks. Instead support should be provided to them for completing their MPhil
programmes. Professional development programmes comprising modern approaches to teaching should
be an integral part of these programmes.

Keeping in view that very few of all higher education faculty are researcher-scholars, and the majority,
especially the degree college teachers, are classroom practitioners, the research at the MPhil level
should focus on action research so that research findings can impact faculty teaching practice. For the
faculty undertaking PhD studies abroad or in Pakistan, it is essential that research studies be conducted
by Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE) or other organisations to identify the number
and type of PhDs required in different disciplines by the employment sector.

It is strongly recommended that a portable faculty development credit portfolio be created for each
faculty that can maintain a record of all the credits earned by faculty through their faculty development
activities. Incentives in terms of monetary benefits and promotions must be provided to faculty
members at various levels of faculty development through this credit scheme.

Changes in structure and functions would be required for development of higher education faculty.
Faculty development would need to be decentralised so as to enable ‘change’ from within the higher
education institutions. This would require that Higher Education Faculty Development Centres be set up
at district or divisional levels. The Centres would be clusters comprising strong and weak institutions with
a lead institution that would be responsible for spearheading the faculty development programmes and
activities. It is also important that the faculty development programmes be developed in each higher
education institution under the supervision of the rector or vice chancellor or principal of the institution.

Higher Education Faculty Development Institutes would need to be established at provincial levels to
help provide support to the centres as well as universities and colleges for planning, development, and
implementation of these programmes. The institutes should have the status of degree awarding
institutions and have the autonomy and powers to control all developmental, administrative, and
funding activities related to faculty development in their regions.

Regarding the role of the HEC, it is recommended that the HEC as the apex body should continue to
spearhead policy, provide funds and support the new faculty development programmes and activities in
all centres and institutions, and along with NACTE, remain responsible for quality assurance of
programmes offered by the proposed institutes and centres.

Currently, the faculty development resources are limited and it is recommended that these programmes
draw expertise available in Pakistan as well as abroad. To encourage cross-utilisation of resources at all
levels so as to enlarge the impact of qualified faculty, the institutes and centres should develop
partnerships with prestigious universities abroad.

Sustainability of the faculty development programmes is critical, and developing local resources will be a
pragmatic approach for the bulk of faculty, including women faculty, as indigenous MPhils and PhDs
would become more accessible and economical. It will also enable these programmes to continue after
donor funds are depleted. Q.5.HOW DOES MINISTRY OF
EDUCATION ,CURRICULUM WING AND TEXTBOOK BOARD MAKES INFLUENCE ON
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ? The
role of the Ministry of Education

The Ministry of Education is the Government’s lead advisor on the education system, shaping direction
for education agencies and providers and contributing to the Government’s goals for education.

Our purpose and behaviours

Strategic leadership in the sector

Support and resources for the community

Support and resources for education providers

School property portfolio management

Support and resources for teachers

Interventions for target student groups

Strategic leadership in the tertiary system

Our purpose and behaviours

In the early childhood and schooling sectors we have responsibility for strategic leadership, policy
development and have a substantial operational role.

Strategic leadership in the sector

We develop strategic policy for the education sector and deliver services to the sector. We undertake
education research and analysis and monitor education sector capability and viability. This involves
coordination with other sector and government agencies and forums and some cross sector work
programmes.

Support and resources for the community

We deliver policies, programmes and services focused on improving the community’s knowledge of and
participation in the education system. This involves working with parents, iwi, and Pasifika advisors and
community groups to get greater participation in education, providing information to enable decisions to
be made about education options and providing education programmes for stakeholders to support the
education system.

Support and resources for education providers

We ensure that education providers have the resources and support they need to deliver services to
students, which includes administering a range of legislative and regulatory controls, determination and
delivery of funding and other resources, providing services that support the governance, management
and operation of education providers, and monitoring and intervening in providers that are at risk in
relation to financial viability, student achievement and participation.

School property portfolio management

We have responsibility for all education property owned by the Crown. This involves managing the
existing property portfolio, upgrading and improving the portfolio, purchasing and constructing new
property to meet increased demand, identifying and disposing of surplus State school sector property
and managing teacher and caretaker housing.

Support and resources for teachers

We support teachers’ and principals’ professional leadership, learning and teaching which involves the
development of national guidelines, providing curriculum statements and achievement standards,
resources to support teaching, learning and assessment and professional leadership and providing
professional development programmes, scholarships and awards. The Ministry also administers the
teachers' payroll.

Interventions for target student groups

We deliver policies, resources and services focused on targeted students groups’ or individuals’
participation in education which includes targeted interventions, specialist support services, funding and
other resources and special education services to children and young people with special learning and
developmental needs.

Strategic leadership in the tertiary system

We deliver policies and services focused on our leadership role in the tertiary sector. This includes the
development of strategic policy for the tertiary sector and international education, undertaking relevant
research and analysis, and monitoring the performance and capacity of Crown entities. We also
represent the education sector internationally. ROLE OF TEXTBOOK BOARD
AND CURRICULUM WING . Textbook is frequently the most
important teaching tool because it candetermine no only what will be taught but also how it will
be taught.Although television, computer, internet and other new media are rivalingprinted
materials of communication, textbook remain major sources inschool and colleges.Among
various instructional aids such as textbook, supplementarybooks is presumably the most
important because it is used in formal as wellas informal situations of instruction and also in
situation of self study. Thisis the cheapest of all the aids enumerated above and also the
teachers.

Definition of Textbook

A textbook has been defined as an instrument of instruction thatfacilitates the teaching learning
process. It is written on the basis of aprescribed syllabus in which the major ideals of the subject
mater areselected and summarized judiciously. They are organized logicallyaccording to the
mental makeup and psychological requirements of thestudents so as to facilitate teaching;
sometimes a text book is called teacher in print. Need and Importance of textbook

Textbook are indispensable for the study and teaching due to variousreasons:

To help the teacher:

The text book provides useful guidelines along which the teacher canplan his day-to-day
teaching; it serves as a reference book while actuallyteaching in the classroom; provides
suggestions for some assignment;suggests activities to be taken up in the classroom and out
side.
To help the pupil:

For the pupil textbook is the most accessible guide, a dependablereference book and an all-time
companion. The pupil makes use of thetextbook to prepare himself in advance for learning in
the classroom; refersto it during the course of learning in the classroom; revises and
reinforcesthe class room learnings; does assignment at home; prepares for theexamination;
reads for pleasure; and seeks guidance and references forfurther studies.

To give the minimum essential Knowledge at one place

:All teachers are not in a position to dig up facts. Some mature, well-trained, experienced
teachers may find it possible to use their out-lines andthus find it possible to dispense with a
basal textbook, but most teacherscannot and should not do it.

To help in self-teaching:

The tradition of imparting education through the instrument of lecturing has high value
especially when the teacher is armed with specialgifts, i.e., inspiring the gifted and encouraging
the weak students, etc. But itneeds to be admitted that even impact of best spoken message is
necessarilyTransitory in character and even the most attentive listener loses any but theobvious
connection in the lesson. The efficacy of the textbook lies in makingself teaching a possible
proposition through printed materials. Thus, a goodtextbook can prove an insurance against
illiteracy at home which is normalin the case of many children.

To provide logical and comprehensive material:

A good textbook provides material in a systematic andcomprehensive form. That why, it sets a standard
of minimum essential to beachieved by pupils of all categories. It gives the beginner a grasp of
newmatter. It also gives direction for further studies to enthusiastic pupils

To ensure uniformity of good standard

:The text book provides a highway for carrying better practices to allSchools. Some sort of uniformity of
good standard is ensured. The Textbook furnishes a common basis on which to master the process of
reading,analyzing, outlining and summarizing. It, thus, furnishes a commonlaboratory in which to
develop study skills.

To provide a base from which both the teacher and the pupil may startand continue to work:

The textbook contain the minimum essential knowledge and can, thus,provide appoint of departure for
more comprehensive link. Further, itprovide the common ground which both the student and teachers
mayexplore together. Also it can focus attention on the same issues - event,sequences and circumstances
and serve well as rallying points.
To provide both confirmation and sustenance:

The textbook is supposed to contain the facts which are carefullysifted and examined. Thus it can
confirm the knowledge obtained elsewhere.

Benefits of Textbook

A good text book is very important because it serves as guide to the syllabus,Particularly suggesting what
should be taught. Textbook also provideexercises, activities and suggestions for further reading, which
encouragesthe teacher to supplement material from other sources.A good textbook can be a
supplement to the instruction received in theclassroom; students can look up specific in formation, catch
up when theymissed school and spend more time concentrating on comprehension than oncopying
down every word.

A good textbook may also help to promote learning. eg. A studentmay get interested in a topic that was
introduced in class and want to knowmore about it. So he/she consult the textbook and in this way not
onlyincreases knowledge but also prepares in advance for the next lesson inclass. Further more the
students learn to be an independent learner in thisway.The exercises at the end of a lesson in the
textbook help to give thestudents practice and also help them to retain information and apply it
todifferent situations. The same exercises help to the teacher in giving homework, assignments and for
revision purposes.Textbook can also have a motivation effect on the students in the factthat it may have
attractive features and suit the interest and level of thereader. The fact that the reader possesses the
book also makes it available toread at all times and when ever possible.Textbook help the teacher to
individualize instruction in the sense thatthe teacher may permit each student to read it his/her own
rate of comprehension.Textbooks are also a very good means to an order of procedure, atopic sequence
and to specify required of standards. In this sense they arealso great time savers.

Characteristics of a good textbook

A textbook is called good one if it contain both Physical andAcademic features.

Physical Features

:1.

Size of the book

It is suitable for the learners.

It is convenient for in handling and carrying.

It is neither too big nor too small for the students for whom it ismeant.

The Procedure of textbook development in PakistanBy: Sohail Ahmed

. Printing of the books

The printing is neat and clean.

It is free from any type of errors.

The spacing between the words, line and paragraph is even andsatisfactory

There are sufficient margins on all sides of the page.

Length of a line is within the eye span of child.

3. Type Size (font) of Textbooks

Different type size is used for the cover page. Title, text and captions.

The font size used in the book is suitable for the age group.

An balance in the use of different font size is maintained (same thememaintained for all book)

It does not strain the eye sight of the pupils.4.

Paper used in Textbooks

It is adequately thick.

It is durable.

It is smooth.

It is reasonable of good quality.5.

Binding of Textbooks

The binding of the book is sufficiently strong.

It opens flat easily.

Price of Textbooks

The price of the Textbook is reasonable. It suits the pockets of majority of the parents.

They help the teacher to evaluate the achievements of the students.

Drawbacks in using Textbooks

Yes, there are some drawbacks in using Textbooks.

Too much dependence on the textbooks gives temporary bookishknowledge.

There is lack of direct experiences. The students acquire second handknowledge.

Teaching and learning become very rigid. The teacher has to teachwhatever is given in the book exactly.

The textbook oppose the dynamic methodology of teaching learning.They are, in fact, not suitable for
teaching according to newprogressive methods.

The textbooks are some times replace the teacher. When the studentfind material better explained in
the text-book, they do not shown dueregard to the teacher.It is undoubtedly, right to say that there are
some drawbacks in the textbook used in the schools. At the same time advantage cannot be set
asideespecially Pakistani classroom situations. Here in this country we need wellgraded, organized
printed material in the form of textbook and this we shallever need in times to come. Without textbooks
our system of education maylag behind. The best way out is to have good books written by
distinguishedwriters.

The procedure of textbook Development in Pakistan

The period from 1947 to 1962 may be considered as a period of .

In 1962, on the recommendation of high-power committee, Textbook Board was established in the then
two provinces of Pakistan under thelegislative provision of the West Pakistan Textbook Board Ordinance,
1962respectively.

Since 1971, development of textbooks for classes I to XII has been thesole responsibility of the four
provincial textbook Boards Punjab Textbook Board Lahore, Sindh Textbook Board Jamshoro, N.W.F.P
Textbook BoardPeshawer and the Baluchistan Textbook Board Quetta. Earlier The WestPakistan Textbook
Board Lahore and the Textbook Board, Decca played thisrrole from 1962, the year of their establishment
Textbooks related to highereducation or for classes above XII are developed, Published and marketedby
the private sector publishers or the concerned universities.But how the textbook developed, produced,
printed, published andmarketed in Pakistan? The textbook Boards receive the curriculum/syllabusfrom
the curriculum wing, Ministry of Education, Islamabad. SubjectSpecialist may be considered as the whole
buisness of

book development in the board. He is mostly a well qualified andexperienced person with a master
degree and relevant on job experience tohis credit. At the very outset, the subject specialist goes
through the syllabusthoroughly and prepares a report and working plan with time scheduling forthe
particular book. At each and every stage he takes his immediatesupervisor, the Editor-in-chief, who
normally happens to be amoreexperienced and versatile person, into confidence. The working plan
isapproved by the director concerned who usually has a doctorate or is anexperienced
academician/teacher. There are two modes of developing thethe manuscript. Either senior or
experienced specialist/teachers are invitedthrough the press to develop a manuscript or the Board itself
commissionsauthors.Manuscript received through any of the above mentioned methods arerefereed by
a panel of three eminent scholars/retired teachers/universityprofessors. The best one, thus selected is
sent to the external editorcommissioned by the Board for purpose. The external editor scrutinizes
andreviews and some and some time amends it to make press-worthy. Finallythe subject specialist of the
board himself works on the script for the purposeof technical editing. Before handing over the
manuscript to thepublisher/printer the subject specialist discusses the lay-out and designed of the book
with the artist of the Board. The artist prepares the illustrations/titleaccording to the content of the book
in consultations with the subjectspecialist. When the subject specialist is satisfied that the manuscript is
up tothe mark, it is sent to the curriculum Wing Ministry of Education, Islamabadfor approval. The
curriculum wing convenes a two or three

meeting of the National Review committee in Islamabad or the premises of the concerned Board for
scrutiny of the manuscript and formulation of recommendations. The Board start printing of the book
when approval letterof the ministry is received. The procedure for textbook development isexplained in
figure on the following page.