Rating of High Voltage Cables

Curtin University Of
Technology
August 2010
Dr. Zahra Jabiri
zahra.jabiri@westernpower.com.au
1
 About this Presentation
• Steady State rating for cables
– Thermal Model
– Mathematical treatment
– Losses
– Important parameters which affect rating
– Effect of installation on rating
• Short Circuit rating for cables
– Temperature base rating
– Asymmetrical faults
– Electromagnetic forces and thermo mechanical effects
2
 Cable Components
• Conductor
• Insulation
– Impregnated Paper
– Polymeric Insulation
• Rubbers
• Plastics
– Thermoplastics
– Thermosets
– Polypropylene Paper Laminate
– Impregnating Fluids and Compounds
• Cable Sheaths
– Metal Armour
– Metallic Layer
3
– Oversheath
4
5
 General Considerations
• To achieve maximum economy in first cost and
subsequent operation of cables, an important
aspect is the selection of the optimum size of
conductor.
• To establish a rating for a particular cable,
designer should calculate an amperage which can
be carried continuously (often called a sustained
rating) under prescribed standard conditions.
• Appropriate factors may then be applied to cater
for the actual installation conditions and mode of
operation. 6
 Relevant Standards
• IEC specification and IEC287, “Electric Cables
Calculation of the current rating”, provides in
great detail the theory and mathematical treatment
for most situations.
• IEC287 has been divided into a number of parts so
that more complex calculations, for particular
conditions, can be included as separate sections.
The three basic parts are:
• IEC287-l-l which deals with the calculation of
losses and contains the current rating equations,
7
 Relevant Standards (cont…)
• IEC287-2-l which covers thermal resistance;
• IEC2SV-3-l which gives reference conditions for
various countries.
• IEC287-l-2 covers eddy current losses for two
circuits and a section dealing with current sharing
and circulating current losses in parallel cables
will follow.
• IEC287-2-2 and IEC2SV-3-2 are re-issues of IEC
1042 and IEC 1059 which covers factors for
groups of cables in air and the selection of cable
size from economic considerations respectively. 8
Circuit Diagram Representing Heat
Generated in a 3-Core Metal
Sheathed Cable

9
 Thermal Model
• During service operation, cables suffer electrical
losses, which appear as heat in the conductor,
insulation and metallic components.
• The current rating is dependent on the way this
heat is transmitted to the cable surface and then
dissipated to the surroundings.
• Temperature is clearly an important factor and is
expressed as a conductor temperature to establish
a datum for the cable itself.
• A maximum temperature is fixed which is
commonly the limit for the insulation material,
without undue ageing, for a reasonable maximum
life. 10
 Thermal Model (cont…)
• By choosing a base ambient temperature for the
surroundings, a permissible temperature rise is
available from which a maximum cable rating can
be calculated for a particular environment.
• Under steady state conditions the difference
between the conductor temperature and the
external ground or ambient temperature is related
to the total heat losses, and the law of heat flow is
very similar to Ohm's law.
• Heat flow corresponds to current, temperature
difference to voltage and the total thermal
resistance in the cable and surroundings to
electrical resistance. 11
 Heat Flow from a Circuit of
Single-Core Cables Installed in
Trefoil

12
 Thermal Model Calculation
• Using this analogy it is possible to construct a
circuit diagram as illustrated previously.
• This shows how the heat generated at several
positions has to flow through a number of layers
of different thermal resistances.
• Thermal resistivity is defined as the difference in
temperature in Kelvin between opposite faces of a
metre cube of material caused by the transference
of 1 watt of heat - hence the units K m/W.
13
 Heath Model Calculation
(Cont…)
• The heat flow within a cable is radial but
externally it is not so and allowance must be made
for the method of installation.
• Figure in previous slide showed the pattern of heat
flow for three buried single-core cables, and
illustrated the importance of making allowance for
the depth of burial and could be extended to show
the effects of other cables in close proximity.

14
 Mathematical Modeling
• Mathematical treatment is most conveniently
expressed for steady state conditions, i.e. for
continuous (sustained) ratings.
• Cables in air will heat up fairly quickly to a steady
state condition but buried power cables may take
very many hours. Hence for most types of
operation for supply distribution cables laid direct,
the continuous ratings may be conservative and
allowance can be made for cyclic operation.
15
 Mathematical Treatment
• The temperature rise in the cable is due to the heat
generated in the conductors (1^2R), in the
insulation (W) and in the sheath and armour
(λI^2R), with allowance being made by
multiplying each of these by the thermal resistance
of the layers through which the heat flows (T).
More detailed derivation of these components is
discussed in the next section but the following
formula shows how they can be used for
calculation purposes for a.c. cables;
16
where ∆θ = conductor temperature rise (K)
I = current flowing in one conductor (A)
R = alternating current resistance per unit length of the conductor at the maximum operating temperature (Ω/m)
Wd = dielectric loss per unit length for the insulation surrounding the conductor (W/m)
T1 = thermal resistance per unit length between one conductor and the sheath (K m/W)
T2 = thermal resistance per unit length of the bedding between sheath and
armour (K m/W)
T3 = thermal resistance per unit length of the external serving of the cable
(K m/W)
T4 = thermal resistance per unit length between the cable surface and the surrounding medium (K m/W)
n = number of load-carrying conductors in the cable (conductors of equal size and carrying the same load)
λ1 = ratio of losses in the metal sheath to total losses in all conductors in that cable
λ2 = ratio of losses in the armouring to total losses in all conductors in that cable

17
 Calculation of Current

• The formula can be re-written for current.

• This formula does not allow for heat generation from any
other source, such as other cables in close proximity, or from
exposure to direct solar radiation.

18
 Calculation of Losses
• R' = d.c. resistance per unit length of
• For dc some of the the conductor at temperature (Ω/m)
losses are not
1/ 2
applicable and the  ∆θ 
I = 
 R ' T1 + nR' T2 + nR' (T3 + T4 ) 
formula will be
reduced to:
• The d.c. resistance
(Ω/m) at temperature R' = R20 [1 + α 20 (θ − 20)]

θ is

19
 Calculation of losses (cont…)
• The a.c. resistance at
temperature θ is: R = R ' (1 + y s + y p )
• where ys = the skin factor
• yp = the proximity effect factor
• At power frequencies
of 50-60Hz the skin xs
4

effect factor is small ys =

192 + 0.8 x s
4
for conductors smaller
than about l50mm2. 8π ƒ
= × 10 −7 k s
2
Above this size it may xs
R'
be taken as: • where f = supply frequency (Hz)
• ks= a constant for cable type (see
IEC287) 20
 Calculation of losses (cont…)
• Proximity effects are due to mutual effects
between the main cable conductors themselves
plus inductive currents in any metallic sheath and
eddy currents in both metallic sheaths and armour.
They can be neglected for small conductor sizes at
power frequencies.
• If detailed calculation is necessary reference
should be made to IEC287, but for standard cables
figures for the total effective a.c. resistance at
maximum operating temperature are included in
the tables (ref. to the appendices in lecture notes).
21
 Dielectric losses in a.c. cables
• The dielectric loss in each phase is (W/m):
Wd = ωCU 0 tan δ
2
• where ω = 2πƒ(l/s) in which ƒ is frequency
(Hz) (with s = second)
• C= capacitance (F/m)
ε
• The capacitance for cables with' circular C= ×10 −9
Di
conductors (F/m) is given by the formula: 18 ln( )
dc
• where ε = relative permittivity of
insulation table 1.1
• Di = external diameter of insulation
excluding screen (mm)
• dc = diameter of conductor including screen
(mm)

22
Losses in Metal Sheaths and Armour (a.c. Cables)

• In multi-core cables, sheath and armour losses may

make some contribution to total losses but the effects
are not of very great significance. However, with
single-core cables the situation is very different and
substantial losses may result from circulating currents
and eddy currents in the sheaths and non-magnetic
armour. Eddy current losses may be ignored when
cables are bonded at both ends.
• Sheath circulating currents are of particular
importance but losses can be reduced to zero by
single-point bonding or by carrying out cross bonding
of the sheaths. Allowance still has to be made for
eddy current losses.
23
 CALCULATION OF
THERMAL RESISTANCES
• In order to use equation (1.2) it is necessary to
calculate the thermal resistances of the different
parts of the cable (T1, T2 and T3). Representative
values for the resistivities of the individual
materials used in cables are included in IEC287,
of which table 1.2 is a summary.
• In making calculations, the thermal resistance of
metallic layers such as screens or sheaths is
ignored but the semi-conducting screens are
considered to be part of the insulation.
24
 Calculation of Thermal
Resistances
• Thermal Resistance Between One Conductor and
Sheath (T1)
Thermal Resistance Between Sheath and Armour (T2 )
Thermal Resistance of Outer Coverings (T3 )
• External Thermal Resistance for Buried Cables (T4)
– Cables in Buried Ducts (T4 )
– Thermal resistance of air space (T4 )
– Thermal resistance of the duct (T4 )
– Thermal resistance of the external medium (T4 )

25
 IMPORTANT PARAMETERS
AFFECTING RATINGS
• Temperature
• Cable Design
• Conditions of Installation
• Effects of Neighbouring Cables
• Correction Factors for Deviation from
Standard Conditions

26
 Ambient Temperature

• Representative average ambient temperatures may

vary within any individual country, e.g. According
to whether the cables are buried or in air outdoors
or within a building, and between countries
according to the geographical climate.
• For guidance purposes IEC 287 has made an
attempt to provide representative average values
for various countries. .

27
 Ambient Temperature

• In using information from these tables several

points must be kept in mind. Cable ratings must be
applicable for the worst conditions throughout the
year and hence for the highest temperatures.
• Although different countries quote different
values of soil resistivity for calculation purposes it
is important to investigate the conditions for the
individual cable circuit.

28
 Maximum Cable Operating
Temperature
• Maximum cable operating temperatures according to insulation
material, cable design and voltage have been agreed in IEC and the
standard values are almost universally accepted throughout the world
for continuous operation.

29
 Maximum Cable Operating
Temperature
• In using these values an important provision
is that attention must be given to soil
resistivity.
• Continuous operation at cable surface
temperatures above 50 oC will cause
movement of moisture away from the
cables and, with many types of cable,
drying out of the backfill may occur and the
cable could exceed the permissible
temperature. 30
 EFFECT OF INSTALLATION
CONDITIONS ON RATINGS
• Depth of Burial
– The depth of laying is governed primarily by what is
considered to he the most advisable to minimise effects
of damage and generally increases with cable voltage.
– An equation covering the effect on rating has already
been quoted and for most purposes the thermal
resistance of the soil may be simplified to:

• where ρτ = soil thermal resistivity (K m/W)

• L = depth of burial to cable axis (mm)
• De = cable external diameter (mm)

31
 EFFECT OF INSTALLATION
CONDITIONS ON RATINGS (cont…)

• Thermal resistivity of the soil

– The presence of moisture has a predominant effect on the resistivity of any
type of soil and so it is necessary to take the weather conditions into
account.

32
 STANDARD OPERATING CONDITIONS AND
RATING FACTORS FOR
SUPPLY DISTRIBUTION CABLES
• (a) Ambient air temperature is taken to be
– 25°C for paper insulated cables and for XLPE insulated cables
above 1.9/3.3 kV.
– 30°C for PVC insulated cables and XLPE cables of 1.9/3.3 kV and
below in order to be in conformity with the lEE Wiring
Regulations.
• (b) Air circulation is not restricted significantly, e.g. if
cables are fastened to a wall they should be spaced at least
20mm from it.
• (c) Adjacent circuits are spaced at least 150 mm apart
and suitable disposed to prevent mutual heating.
• (d) Cables are shielded from direct sunshine.
33
 Standard conditions
• (a) Ground temperature 15 oC
• (b) Soil thermal resistivity 1.2 K m/W
• (c) Adjacent circuits at least 1.8 m distance
• (d) Depth of laying 0.5m for l kV
and 0.8m for
cables above 1 kV and up to 33 kV

34
Rating Factors for Ambient
Temperature

35
Rating Factors for Ground Temperature

36
Rating Factors for Thermal Resistivity of Soil
(Average Values)

37
38
39
40
 SHORT TIME AND CYCLIC RATINGS

• It very often happens that loads are cyclic rather than sustained.
• Many cables, particularly when buried, may take up to 24 hours or even longer
for the temperature to build up to the equilibrium conditions on which
sustained ratings are based.
• Cyclic rating is higher than the value for sustained operation.
Temperature rise

0 2 4 6 8 10

Time in hours 41
 PART 2
Short-circuit Ratings

42
 General
• It happens frequently that the conductor size necessary for
an installation is dictated by its ability to carry short-circuit
rather than sustained current.
• During this period the current falls off slightly due to the
increase in conductor resistance with temperature but for
calculation purposes it is assumed to remain steady.
• At the commencement of the short circuit the cable may be
operating at its maximum permissible continuous.
• Short Circuit creates thermo-mechanical and electro-
mechanical forces.

43
 TEMPERATURE
• As the time involved is short and cooling
follows rapidly, the cable insulation can
withstand much higher temperatures than
are allowed for sustained operation .
• The difference between the maximum
conductor temperatures for sustained rating,
and the allowable temperatures for each
material, provides a maximum temperature
rise which can be used in short-circuit rating
calculations. 44
45
 RATINGS DERIVED ON A TEMPERATURE
BASIS
• Short-circuit ratings can be calculated using either the
adiabatic method, which assumes that all of the heat
generated remains trapped within the current carrying
component, or non-adiabatic methods, which allow for
heat absorption by adjacent materials.
• The adiabatic method may be used when the ratio of short-
circuit duration to conductor cross-sectional area is less
than 0.1 s/mm2.
• On smaller conductors, as the short-circuit duration
increases the loss of heat from the conductor becomes
more significant. In such cases the non-adiabatic method
can be used to provide a significant increase in permissible
short-circuit current. 46
 Adiabatic Method
• By ignoring heat loss an equation can be derived which equates heat input (I^2 RT) to
heat absorbed into the current carrying component (product of mass, specific heat and
temperature rise). The adiabatic temperature rise formula given in IEC 724 is:
•
• (2.1)
•
•
Where
• I = short circuit (r.m.s. over duration) (A)
• T = duration of short circuit (second)
• K = constant for the material of the conductor
• S = area of conductor (mm2)
• θ1 = final temperature (oC)
• θ0 = initial temperature (oC)
β = reciprocal of the temperature coefficient of resistance (α) of the conductor
• (per degree (Celsius at 0oC)
47
 Adiabatic Method (Cont…)
In the above formula, 'conductor' refers to the
current carrying component. The constants for the
usual metals are given in tables (refer to lecture
notes), in which

• Where Qc = volumetric specific heat of the

conductor at 20oc (J/ oC mm3)
• ρ20 = resistivity of conductor metal at 20 oC
48
(Ω mm)
 Non-adiabatic Method
• IEC949 gives a non-adiabatic method of calculating the thermally
permissible short-circuit current allowing for heat transfer from the
current carrying component to adjacent materials.
• The non-adiabatic method is valid for all short-circuit durations and
provides a significant increase in permissible short-circuit current for
screens, metallic sheaths and some small conductors.
• The approach adopted is to calculate the adiabatic short-circuit current,
using equation (2.1), and a modifying factor which takes into account
the heat lost to adjacent materials.
• The adiabatic short-circuit current is multiplied by the modifying
factor to obtain the permissible non-adiabatic short-circuit current.

49
 Non-Adiabatic Method (cont…)

• The equations used to calculate the non-

adiabatic factor are given in IEC949. For
conductors and spaced screen wires fully
surrounded by non-metallic materials the
equation for the non-adiabatic factor (∈ ) is;

50
51
Short Circuit Currents For Various Cables

52
 ASYMMETRICAL FAULTS
• In the case of asymmetrical fault, i.e. earth, faults other
factors have to be taken into account, because the current is
carried by the sheath and/or armour. In general for small
conductor sizes the conductor temperature rise is still the
limiting factor, but with the larger sizes a lower limit is
imposed by lead Sheath and armour considerations
• Lead sheaths are liable to be damaged if they are suddenly
heated to temperatures above those shown in the table and
the armour temperature may be controlled by the
performance of the extruded PVC in contact with it.

53
 ASYMMETRICAL FAULTS (Cont…)

• Maximum allowable asymmetrical fault currents for the

more common distribution cable types are given in tables
in lecture notes.
• Unless otherwise stated, the ratings apply to cables with
stranded conductors.
• They are also for fault duration of 1 s. For other periods
the values should be divided by the square root of the time
in seconds.
• In the case of lead sheathed wire armoured cable it is
assumed that the current is shared between the lead sheath
and the armour.

54
55
56
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES AND
CABLE BURSTING
• In multi-core cables a short circuit produces
electromagnetic forces which repel the cores from each
other, and if they are not adequately bound together the
cable will tend to burst.
• The effect is of importance with unarmoured paper
insulated cables, as the insulation may be damaged in the
process.
• For conductor sizes of 185 mm2 and above and currents
above about 30 kA, the damage which can be caused by
bursting forces imposes limitations on the ratings deduced
by the thermal considerations irrespective of fault duration.
• Armouring provides sufficient reinforcement to prevent
damage due to these bursting forces. 57
58
 THERMO MECHANICAL
EFFECTS
• The high temperature rise resulting from a
short circuit produces expansion of the
conductors, which may cause problems due
to longitudinal thrust of the conductors anti
bodily movement of the cable if it is not
adequately supported. The possibility of
excessive thrust is also important if the
cable has a solid conductor.
59
 Design of Joints and Terminations
• The effect on joints is more critical with buried cables, i.e.
because of the ground restraint on the cable surface the
cores may tend to move longitudinally within the cable and
into the accessory.
• If the material in the accessory is sufficiently soft to permit
movement of the cores, the force may cause buckling and
collapse within the accessory. Once this has occurred, a
tension will develop as the conductors cool down and this
can create further problems. This is the reason for the
160oC temperature limit on soldered conductor
connections.

60
 Differences Between Copper and
Aluminium Conductors
• Although the coefficient of expansion of aluminium is
somewhat higher than that of copper, the effect as far as
stress is concerned is largely balanced by the lower elastic
modulus of aluminium forces causing buckling are
therefore of a similar order.
• On the other hand, aluminium is a softer metal and under
compressive forces during heating could result in higher
tensile forces on cooling.

61
 Differences Between Copper and
Aluminium Conductors (Cont…)
• When such conductors were first introduced it was
considered that a lower permissible short-circuit
temperature might be necessary but subsequent experience
has not indicated need for special treatment.
• When limitations are imposed by lead sheaths or
electromagnetic forces, the type of' conductor metal is
irrelevant in theory but, in respect of bursting forces,
aluminium is at some disadvantage compared with copper
because of the physical size effect for equal rating.

62
 Installation Conditions
• The effects of longitudinal thrust are most
important for cables which are buried in the
ground. However, it is also important that cables
installed in air should have adequate support
spacings and/or rigid cleating to prevent excessive
generation of expansion and contraction in local
spans, particularly associated with accessories.

63
 Installation Conditions
(Cont…)
• In the case of cables with thermoplastic insulation
and over sheaths, it is also important to prevent
excessive local pressure on the cable which could
cause deformation of the material.
• Similar remarks apply to thermoset insulation
with large conductor sizes because of the high
temperature of 250oc which is quoted for XLPE
and EPR.

64
 General Comments

• It is usual to quote short-circuit ratings relative to

the basic cable design and type of insulation. It
must be stressed that, such values are only
applicable if the method of installation and the
accessories are appropriate. These aspects may
represent the weakest links and are often
overlooked.

65
 Mitigating Circumstances

• In order to have a standardised basis for the

publication of short-circuit ratings, it is assumed
that the short circuit occurs whilst the cable is
already at the maximum temperature for
continuous operation. This is seldom the case.
When it is important to design or choose a cable to
secure a very high short-circuit rating and all other
circumstances can be predicted fairly accurately,
the tabulated figures may even be increased by an
appropriate factor.

66