EC6651 COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

UNIT 5

Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel
Professor and Head
Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering
R M K Engineering College

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 UNIT V SATELLITE, OPTICAL FIBER –
POWERLINE, SCADA
Orbits : types of satellites : frequency used link
establishment, MA techniques used in satellite
communication, earth station; aperture actuators used in
satellite – Intelsat and Insat: fibers – types:
sources, detectors used, digital filters, optical link: power
line carrier communications: SCADA
YouTube Video Presentation
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9p5JGPZ2Uao
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uSfK7cTlGsk
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pWIe2T-QAE8
5/4/2018 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 2
 INTRODUCTION
 Satellite communication, in telecommunications, the use of
artificial satellites to provide communication links between
various points on Earth.
 Satellite communications play a vital role in the global
telecommunications system.
 Approximately 2,000 artificial satellites orbiting Earth relay
analog and digital signals carrying voice, video, and data to and
from one or many locations worldwide.

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4
 Satellite applications
• There are three types of communication services that satellites provide:
• Telecommunications -Telecommunication services include telephone calls and services
provided to telephone companies, as well as wireless, mobile, and cellular network providers.
• Broadcasting - services include radio and television delivered directly to the consumer and
mobile broadcasting services. DTH, or satellite television, services (such as the DirecTV and
DISH Network services in the United States) are received directly by households. Cable and
network programming is delivered to local stations and affiliates largely via satellite. Satellites
also play an important role in delivering programming to cell phones and other mobile devices,
such as personal digital assistants and laptops.
• Data communications - involve the transfer of data from one point to another. Corporations and
organizations that require financial and other information to be exchanged between their
various locations use satellites to facilitate the transfer of data through the use of very small-
aperture terminal (VSAT) networks. With the growth of the Internet, a significant amount of
Internet traffic goes through satellites, making ISPs one of the largest customers for satellite
services.
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 Types
 Weather satellites (TIROS, COSMOS)
 Communications satellites (Telstar, Intelsat)
 transponder

 Broadcast satellites
 Scientific satellites (Hubble telescope)
 Navigational satellites (GPS Navstar)
 Rescue satellites
 Earth observation satellites (LANDST)
 Military satellites (???)
 Satellite Orbits
• Satellite orbit around the earth. Depending on the applications
these orbits are circular or elliptical
• If the satellite is orbiting in the same direction as earthrise's
rotation – prograde orbit
• If the satellite is orbiting in the opposite direction as earthrise's
rotation – retrograde orbit
• Apogee – The point in an orbit that is located farthest from earth
• Perigee - The point in an orbit that is located closets to earth
Satellite orbits

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 Satellite Orbits
• Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
• Medium Earth Orbit(MEO)
• High Elliptical Orbit (HEO)
• Geostationary Orbits (GEO)
 Orbit altitude (km above
Orbit name Orbit initials Details
Earth's surface)

Low Earth Orbit LEO 200 - 1200

Medium Earth Orbit MEO 1200 - 35790

Orbits once a day, but not necessarily in the

Geosynchronous Orbit GSO 35790 same direction as the rotation of the Earth - not
necessarily stationary

Orbits once a day and moves in the same

direction as the Earth and therefore appears
Geostationary Orbit GEO 35790
stationary above the same point on the Earth's
surface. Can only be above the Equator.

High Earth Orbit HEO Above 35790

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 SATELLITE ORBITS
GEO
 Located along the equatorial plane.
 About 36000 km above the earth
 Has Geo-synchronous orbit
 Period of 1436 minutes
 Good coverage from remote areas
 Has wide field of view ~ 50 degrees
 Has low resolution
 Provides continuous data ~ 15-30 min.
 Not very suitable for vertical soundings
LEO
 Near polar orbiting
 800 -900 km above the earth
 Has Sun-synchronous orbit
 Period of 101 minutes
 Excellent coverage at the poles
 Has relatively narrow field of view
 Has high resolution
 Passes vary with latitude
 Very suitable for vertical soundings
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 Geostationary Orbits

 Geo orbit is stationary with respect to a location on the

earth
 Circular orbit around the equator (orbital inclination =
zero)
 Placed in high orbit (35,800 km) to match the angular
velocity of Earth
 Uses of Geostationary Orbits
 Weather satellites (GOES, METEOSAT)
 Constant monitoring
 Communication satellites

Constant contact w/ground stations

Limited spatial coverage
 each satellite can only cover about 25-30% of the earth’s surface
 coverage extends only to the mid-latitudes, no more than about 55o
 Uses
 Direct TV, DBS
 News
 Telephones
 Cable
 GPS
 Emergency radio beacons
 Satellite Frequency Bands
Frequency Range
Letter designation for satellite frequency band
(GHz)
L 1 -2
S 2-4
C 4-8
8 - 12
X
(8 - 12.5 in North America)
12 - 18
Ku
(12.5 - 18 in North America)
18 - 27
K
(18 - 25.5 in North America)
27 - 40
Ka
(26.5 - 40 in North America)
O 40 - 50
V 50 - 75 15
16
MA techniques used in satellite
communication

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Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA)

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 Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA)
 In an FDMA system, each user has its own frequency channel.
This implies that relatively narrow filters are needed in each
receiver and transmitter.
 Most duplex FDMA systems must transmit and receive
simultaneously. (Frequency Division Duplex, FDD)

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 FDMA

Frequency

Channel

Time

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 Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA)
 In TDMA, a set of N users share the same radio channel,
but each user only uses the channel during
predetermined slots.
 A frame consists of N slots, one for each user. Frames
are repeated continuously

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Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

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 TDMA

Frequency Time Slot

Channel

Time
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

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 Spread Spectrum Transmission
 In Spread Spectrum communication, the bandwidth occupancy of a
single transmitted signal is much higher than in systems using
conventional modulation methods.
 This band-spreading is achieved by selecting appropriate
transmission waveforms with a wide bandwidth.
 A very popular method is to multiply the user data signal with a fast
code sequence, which mostly is independent of the transmitted data
message.
 In the case that multiple users share the same portion of the radio
spectrum but use different codes to distinguish their transmissions,
we speak of Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
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CDMA

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 CDMA
Frequency

Code

Time
Code 1
Code 2
Code 3
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 Spread Spectrum

 Important encoding method for wireless communications

 analog & digital data with analog signal
 Spreads data over wide bandwidth
 Makes jamming and interception harder
 Two approaches, both in use:
 Frequency Hopping
 Direct Sequence
General Model of Spread Spectrum
System
 Spread Spectrum Advantages

 Immunity from noise and multipath distortion

 Can hide / encrypt signals
 Several users can share same higher bandwidth with little
interference
 CDM/CDMA Mobile telephones
 Pseudorandom Numbers

 Generated by a deterministic algorithm

 not actually random
 but if algorithm good, results pass reasonable tests of
randomness
 Starting from an initial seed
 Need to know algorithm and seed to predict sequence
 Hence only receiver can decode signal
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
 Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series of
frequencies
 Receiver hops between frequencies in sync with
transmitter
 Eavesdroppers hear unintelligible blips
 Jamming on one frequency affects only a few bits
Frequency Hopping Example
 Slow and Fast FHSS
 commonly use multiple FSK (MFSK)
 have frequency shifted every Tc seconds
 duration of signal element is Ts seconds
 Slow FHSS has Tc  Ts
 Fast FHSS has Tc < Ts
 FHSS quite resistant to noise or jamming
 with fast FHSS giving better performance
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS)
 each bit is represented by multiple bits using a spreading code
 this spreads signal across a wider frequency band
 has performance similar to FHSS
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
Example
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum System
DSSS Example Using BPSK
Approximate
Spectrum of
DSSS Signal
 Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
 a multiplexing technique used with spread spectrum
 given a data signal rate D
 break each bit into k chips according to a fixed chipping
code specific to each user
 resulting new channel has chip data rate kD chips per
second
 can have multiple channels superimposed
CDMA Example
CDMA for DSSS
 NORWICH UNIVERISTY CENTER OF EXELLENCE IN DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM SECURITY

Why SCADA?
 Saves Time and Money
 Less traveling for workers (e.g. helicopter ride)
 Reduces man-power needs
 Increases production efficiency of a company
 Cost effective for power systems
 Saves energy
 Reliable
 Supervisory control over a particular system

SCADA SYSTEMS CLASSIFICATIONS (ILIA DORMISHEV, KRENAR KOMONI)

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 NORWICH UNIVERISTY CENTER OF EXELLENCE IN DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM SECURITY

What is SCADA?
 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
 Supervisory
 Operator/s, engineer/s, supervisor/s, etc
 Control
 Monitoring
 Limited
 Telemetry
 Remote/Local
 Data acquisition
 Access and acquire information or data from the
equipment
 Sends it to different sites through telemetry
 Analog / Digital
SCADA SYSTEMS CLASSIFICATIONS (ILIA DORMISHEV, KRENAR KOMONI)
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 NORWICH UNIVERISTY CENTER OF EXELLENCE IN DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM SECURITY

Classifications

 Anatomy of a SCADA system?

 Elements of SCADA
 Levels of SCADA
 Where is SCADA used?
 Different applications of SCADA systems?
 What types of SCADA are there?
 Component manufacturers and system manufacturers of the SCADA
systems?
 Automation Solutions
 Software
 Hardware
SCADA SYSTEMS CLASSIFICATIONS (ILIA DORMISHEV, KRENAR KOMONI)
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 NORWICH UNIVERISTY CENTER OF EXELLENCE IN DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM SECURITY

Elements of SCADA
Elements of a SCADA system
 Sensors and actuators
 RTUs/PLCs
 Communication
 MTU
 Front End Processor
 SCADA server
 Historical/Redundant/Safety Server
 HMI computer
 HMI software

SCADA SYSTEMS CLASSIFICATIONS (ILIA DORMISHEV, KRENAR KOMONI)

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 NORWICH UNIVERISTY CENTER OF EXELLENCE IN DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM SECURITY

Sensors

Types of sensors:

 Pressure sensors
 Temperature sensors
 Light sensors
 Humidity sensors
 Wind speed sensors
 Water level sensors
 Distance sensors
 Actuators

Actuators:

 Valves
 Pumps
 Motors

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 NORWICH UNIVERISTY CENTER OF EXELLENCE IN DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM SECURITY

RTUs

RTU – Remote Terminal Unit

 Intelligent to control a process and multiple processes
 Data logging and alarm handling
 Expandable
 Asks the field devices for information
 Can control IEDs (Intelligent Electronic Device)
 Slave/Master device

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 NORWICH UNIVERISTY CENTER OF EXELLENCE IN DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM SECURITY

Alarms

Types of alarms:

 Good alarms
 Critical failure alarms

SCADA SYSTEMS CLASSIFICATIONS (ILIA DORMISHEV, KRENAR KOMONI)

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 Safety instrumented systems

Actions:

 Override the normal control system

 Take over the actuators

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 PLCs

PLC – Programmable Logic Controller

 Ladder logic
 Industrial computer that replaced relays
 Not a protocol converter
 Cannot control IEDs
 Communication compatibilities
 Takes actions based on its inputs

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 Communication
Communication systems:

 Switched Telephone Network

 Leased lines
 Private Network (LAN/RS-485)
 Internet
 Wireless Communication systems
 Wireless LAN
 Global System for Mobile Communication
(GSM) Network
 Radio modems
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 Communication cont.
Protocols:

 MODBUS
 DNP 3.0
 Fieldbus
 Controller Area Network (CAN)
 Profibus
 DirectNet
 TCP/IP
 Ethernet

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 Front End Processor

Front End Processor

 Gathers all communications and converts them

into SCADA friendly communication
 Communication interface between several RTU
channels and the host Master Station computer

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 SCADA server

SCADA Server

 It can be a Web server

 Data logging
 Analyzing data
 Serve the clients through a firewall
 Clients connected in the corporation or connected
outside through internet
 Real-time decision maker
 Asks RTU for information

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 Historical server

Historical/Safety/Redundant Server

 Logs the data from the SCADA server and

stores it as a backup, in case of a disaster
 It is basically a safety server

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 HMI Computer
Human Machine Interface Computer

 Access on the SCADA Server

 Control the system
 Operator Interface
 Software
 User friendly
 Programmable (C, C++)

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 DCS

DCS – Distributed Control System

 Process oriented – tendency to do something

 Not event oriented – does not depend on circumstances
 Local control over the devices
 Subordinate to SCADA

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 Levels of SCADA
Four levels of SCADA system

 Level IV - Enterprise
 Corporate LAN/WAN
 World Wide Web
 Virtual Private Network
 Firewall for remote users
 Level III – SCADA / MTU
 Operator Workstations
 Control
 Engineering Workstations
 Servers – Data logging
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 Levels of SCADA cont.
Four levels of SCADA system

 Level II – Telecommunication
 Fiber
 Radio
 Telephone leased line
 Protocols
 Level I – Field
 Devices
 RTUs / PLCs
 Sensors

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Level IV - Enterprise

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Level III - SCADA

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 Level II and I
Telecommunication and Field

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 Where is SCADA used?

Main SCADA applications:

 Water and Wastewater
 Power
 Oil and Gas
 Research facilities
 Transportation
 Security systems
 Siren systems
 Irrigation
 Communication control

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 SCADA examples

SCADA examples:

 Gas control systems

 Water control systems
 Power systems

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Gas SCADA

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Water SCADA

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 SCADA system types

Three types of basic SCADA systems:

 Basic SCADA
 One machine process
 One RTU and MTU
 Integrated SCADA
 Multiple RTUs
 DCS
 Networked SCADA
 Multiple SCADA

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Basic SCADA

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Integrated SCADA

 Water systems
 Subway systems
 Security systems

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Networked SCADA

 Power systems
 Communication
systems

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 Automation solutions
SCADA system manufacturers

 Modular SCADA, UK
 MOSCAD, Motorola
 Rockwell Automation
 ABCO
 ABB
 Lantronix

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 SCADA Hardware
SCADA Hardware manufacturers

 Rockwell Allen Bradley

 General Electric (GE)
 Emerson
 Schneider Electric

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 SCADA Software
SCADA Software manufacturers

 Intellution (Fix 32)

 Iconics (Genesis32 v7.0)
 Wonderware (InTouch)
 Citect (CitectSCADA 5.42)
 National Instruments (Lookout SCADA)

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 Introduction
An optical fiber is essentially a waveguide for light
It consists of a core and cladding that surrounds the core
The index of refraction of the cladding is less than that of
the core, causing rays of light leaving the core to be
refracted back into the core
A light-emitting diode (LED) or laser diode (LD) can be
used for the source
Advantages of optical fiber include:
 Greater bandwidth than copper
 Lower loss
 Immunity to crosstalk
 No electrical hazard

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Optical Fiber and Communications System

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 Total Internal Reflection

 Optical fibers work on the principle of total internal reflection

 With light, the refractive index is listed
 The angle of refraction at the interface between two media is
governed by Snell’s law:

n1 sin1  n2 sin2

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 Modes and Materials

 Since optical fiber is a waveguide, light can propagate in a number of

modes
 If a fiber is of large diameter, light entering at different angles will
excite different modes while narrow fiber may only excite one mode
 Multimode propagation will cause dispersion, which results in the
spreading of pulses and limits the usable bandwidth
 Single-mode fiber has much less dispersion but is more expensive to
produce. Its small size, together with the fact that its numerical
aperture is smaller than that of multimode fiber, makes it more
difficult to couple to light sources

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 Types of Fiber
 Both types of fiber described earlier are known as step-index fibers
because the index of refraction changes radically between the core
and the cladding
 Graded-index fiber is a compromise multimode fiber, but the index of
refraction gradually decreases away from the center of the core
 Graded-index fiber has less dispersion than a multimode step-index
fiber

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 Dispersion
 Dispersion in fiber optics results from the fact that in multimode
propagation, the signal travels faster in some modes than it would in
others
 Single-mode fibers are relatively free from dispersion except for
intramodal dispersion
 Graded-index fibers reduce dispersion by taking advantage of
higher-order modes
 One form of intramodal dispersion is called material dispersion
because it depends upon the material of the core
 Another form of dispersion is called waveguide dispersion
 Dispersion increases with the bandwidth of the light source

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 Losses
 Losses in optical fiber result from attenuation in the material itself
and from scattering, which causes some light to strike the cladding at
less than the critical angle
 Bending the optical fiber too sharply can also cause losses by
causing some of the light to meet the cladding at less than the critical
angle
 Losses vary greatly depending upon the type of fiber
 Plastic fiber may have losses of several hundred dB per kilometer
 Graded-index multimode glass fiber has a loss of about 2–4 dB
per kilometer
 Single-mode fiber has a loss of 0.4 dB/km or less

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Types of Losses

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 Fiber-Optic Cables
• There are two basic types of fiber-optic cable
 The difference is whether the fiber is free to move inside a tube with a diameter much larger than
the fiber or is inside a relatively tight-fitting jacket
• They are referred to as loose-tube and tight-buffer cables
• Both methods of construction have advantages
 Loose-tube cables—all the stress of cable pulling is taken up by the cable’s strength members
and the fiber is free to expand and contract with temperature
 Tight-buffer cables are cheaper and generally easier to use

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 Splices and Connectors
• In fiber-optic systems, the losses from splices and connections can be more than in
the cable itself
• Losses result from:
• Axial or angular misalignment
• Air gaps between the fibers
• Rough surfaces at the ends of the fibers

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 Fiber-Optic Connectors
• Coupling the fiber to sources and detectors creates losses as well, especially when
it involves mismatches in numerical aperture or in the size of optical fibers
• Good connections are more critical with single-mode fiber, due to its smaller
diameter and numerical aperture
• A splice is a permanent connection and a connector is removable

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 Optical Emitters
• Optical emitters operate on the idea that electromagnetic energy can only appear in
a discrete amount known as a quantum. These quanta are called photons when the
energy is radiated
• Energy in one photon varies directly with the frequency
• Typical optical emitters include:
• Light-Emitting Diodes
• Laser Diodes

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 Light-Emitting Diodes
• An LED is form of junction diode that is operated with forward bias
• Instead of generating heat at the PN junction, light is generated and passes through
an opening or lens
• LEDs can be visible spectrum or infrared

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 Laser Diodes
• Laser diodes generate coherent, intense light of a very narrow bandwidth
• A laser diode has an emission linewidth of about 2 nm, compared to 50 nm for a
common LED
• Laser diodes are constructed much like LEDs but operate at higher current levels

89
 Optical Detectors
• The most common optical detector used with fiber-optic systems is
the PIN diode
• The PIN diode is operated in the reverse-bias mode
• As a photo detector, the PIN diode takes advantage of its wide depletion region, in
which electrons can create electron-hole pairs
• The low junction capacitance of the PIN diode allows for very fast switching

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 Avalanche Photodiode
• The avalanche photodiode (APD) is also operated in the reverse-
bias mode
• The creation of electron-hole pairs due to the absorption of a photon
of incoming light may set off avalanche breakdown, creating up to
100 more pairs
• This multiplying effect gives an APD very high sensitivity

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 References
Book:
1. Taub & Schiling “Principles of Communication Systems” Tata McGraw hill 2007.
2. Kennedy and Davis “Electronic Communication Systems” Tata McGraw hill, 4th Edition, 1993.
3. Sklar “Digital Communication Fundamentals and Applications“ Pearson Education, 2001.
4. TG Thomas and S Chandra Sekhar, “Communication Theory” Tata McGraw hill 2006.
Web:
http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/investigations/esu101/esu101page03.cfm?chapter_no=investigation
https://www.britannica.com/technology/satellite-communication
http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/satellite/frequencies/frequency-bands-chart.php
https://www.ics.uci.edu/~magda/Courses/netsys270/ch6_2_v1.ppt
www.cs.utsa.edu/~korkmaz/teaching/cs3413/ppt/09-SpreadSpectrum.ppt
PPT:
 www.uky.edu/~sdbaker/tel101/w6sat.ppt
 forum.sci.ccny.cuny.edu/Members/mtedesco/courses/Spring2009/Lecture4.ppt/.../file
 www.cima.fcen.uba.ar/T-NOTE/lec/deConing/1_EstelledC_Satellite-basics.ppt
 faculty.petra.ac.id/handy/download/scada_classification.ppt
 hank.uoregon.edu/experiments/Dispersion...Optical-Fiber/Ch24%20fiber%20optics.pp...
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5/4/2018 Dr Gnanasekaran Thangavel 93

 Thank You

Questions and Comments?

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