Tribology Lecture - 10

Friction
By
Prof. Punit Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra,

1
Friction Fundamentals
Where Does Friction Come From ?
 Reducing Friction

We cannot get rid of friction completely.;

however, it can be reduced by:

Using lubricants like powders, oils and

grease.

Using rollers or wheels

Using ball bearings 4

 Useful Friction

It is possible to hold a tumbler due to the
friction between hands and tumbler.

Friction between the feet and ground enables

walking.

Friction between pen/pencil and paper

enables writing.

Friction between chalk and blackboard. 5

Useful Friction

BRAKES
6
Useful Friction

CLUTCH
7
Useful Friction

FRICTION DRIVE 8
 Types Of Friction

Dry Friction
 Dry friction, also called “Coulomb” friction,
describes the tangential component of the
contact force that exists when two dry
surfaces move or tend to move relative to one
another..
another 9
 Types Of Friction

Fluid Friction
 Fluid friction describes the tangential component
of the contact force that exists between adjacent
layers in a fluid that are moving at different
velocities relative to each other as in a liquid or
gas between bearing surfaces.
surfaces.
10
Types Of Friction

11
 Tribology Lecture - 11

Friction
By
Prof. Punit Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra,

12
Laws Of Sliding
Friction

13
 1 st Law

The force of friction (F) between
two surfaces is proportional to the
normal reaction (N).

F ∝ N ⇒ F = µN
where µ is called as:
Coefficient of Friction
14
 2 nd Law

The force of P

friction acts
in a direction µN P N
opposite to N
µN

relative
motion

15
3 rd Law

The force of
friction does
not depend
upon the area
of contact.
16
 4 th Law

The force of friction depends upon

the nature of the surfaces:
• Polished or Unpolished
• Dry or Wet
• Smooth or Rough
• Material Pair
17
 5 th Law

The force of friction does not

depend upon the velocity

18
Origin of Friction
Historical Background

19

Amontons considered that the
surfaces were not completely
smooth and friction originated due
to the work done in:
• lifting the load over the
asperities
• deforming the asperities
20

Desaguliers criticized the surface
roughness explanation on the basis
that friction increases when
surfaces are made smoother.

He attributed friction to the areas

of adhesion within the contact
zone.
21

It meant that adhesion should
double on doubling the contact
area and hence, the frictional force
should also double. However,
friction is independent of contact
area.

22

Coulomb attributed friction to:
• Adhesion (one of the
significant contributors).
• Interlocking of surface
asperities
• Work done as the surfaces
move apart againstd gravity
due to sliding up the hills
under tangential load. 23

Ladle’s criticism:
• Hills and valleys coexist.
• Hence, no net increase in
elevation of moving bodies.
• Therefore, no net work done
against gravity.
• If overcoming gravity is the sole
cause – no frictional effect on an
average due to above reasons.
24

Leonhard Euler believed in the
model of rigid interlocking of
asperities.

He introduced the use of symbol µ

for coefficient of friction.

He showed that µ=tanθ for triangular

asperities of slope θ.
25

According to the present
knowledge, firction is due to
interactions between opposing
asperities,

Types of asperity rinteractions:

• Adhesion
• Deformation
26
 ADHESION

Intimate contact at asperity peaks due
to applied load

Contact area << Nominal area

Very high contact pressure

Outermost atoms of both surfaces are
in close proximity

Favorable conditions – surface are
clean and free from oxides, surface
films and absorbed gases 27
 ADHESION…

Surfaces are welded to ultra high

vacuum (10-8 Pa pressure)

Hence, a sufficiently high force is
required to pull or slide the surfaces
apart

Particularly significant for soft and
ductile materials like lead and indium
28
 ADHESION…

Due to high pressures at the asperity

peaks, the two surfaces get cold
welded together

The strength of cold welded junctions
is comparable to parent materials

Therefore, significant resistance is
offered
29
 DEFORMATION

In the absence of adhesion, ffriction
is due to deformation of material and
its displacement during relative
motion

Types of deformation interactions:
• Microscopic – Involve asperities only
• Macroscopic – Ploughing of bulk
material, including ploughing due to
wear debris
30
 ADHESION vs DEFORMATION

These two may not be independent

of each other

Their individual contributions to

friction may or may not be
significant

31
 ADHESION vs DEFORMATION..

The magnitude of contributions

depend upon:
• Surface roughness
• Hardness of surface materials
• Shape, size and hardness of wear
particles

32
 Tribology Lecture - 14

Friction
By
Prof. Punit Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra,

33
 In terms of standardized variables:
(h=d/σ; s=z/σ)
∞
n = N ∫ψ (s ) ds
*

h
∞
Ar = πRNσ ∫ (s − h )ψ (s ) ds
*

h
∞
4 * 1/ 2 3 / 2
W = E R Nσ ∫ (s − h ) ψ (s ) ds
3/ 2 *

3 h 34
For ψ (s ) = e :
* −s

∞
n = N ∫ e ds = N e
−s
[ −h
−e −∞
] = Ne −h

−h
Ar = π R N σ e
* 3/ 2 −h
W =π 1/ 2
E R Nσ 1/ 2
e
35
For W : Put s − h = t ⇒ ds = 2tdt
2

∞
8 * 1 / 2 3 / 2 − h 4 −t 2
W = E R Nσ e ∫ t e dt
3 0

∞ ∞ ∞
 t −t 2 
3
3 2 −t 2
∫0 t e dt = − 2 e  + 2 ∫0 t e dt
4 −t 2

0
∞ ∞
3  t −t 2  3 −t 2
= − e  + ∫ e dt
2 2 0 4 0
36
 ∞

∫e
3 / 2 −h −t 2
W = 2 E R Nσ
* 1/ 2
e dt
0

∞ ∞ ∞
 −t 2   −t 2 
I = ∫ e dt
−t 2
I =  ∫ e dt   ∫ e dt 
2

0 0  0 
∞ ∞
 −u 2   − v 2 
I =  ∫ e du   ∫ e dv 
2

0  0 
37
 ∞∞
I = ∫∫e
2 ( − u2 +v 2 )dudv
0 0

Put u = r cosθ , v = r sin θ

π /2 ∞ 2π ∞
1  
∫ ∫0 e rdrdθ = 2 ∫0  ∫0
 
−r 2 −r 2
I =
2
2 re dr  dθ
0 

[ ] dθ = π / 4
π /2
1  − e ∞
∫
−r 2
I =
2

2 0
 0

I =π 1/ 2
/2 38
Friction Theories:
Adhesion

39
 1
Bowden and Tabor’s
Simple Adhesion
Theory
40

When two surfaces are loaded,
intimate contact takes place at
asperuty tips and Areal << Anominal

Due to very high pressure at contact

points, the asperity tips deform
plastically and the plastic flow
causes the total contact area to grow
41

The gorwth of total contact area
takes place by two means:
• Growth of individual contact spots
• Initiation of new contacts

This process continues until the total

real contact area is large enough to
support the applied load elastically

42

Therefore, the normal load for an
elastic-plastic material:

W = Apo (1)
where A is the real contact area and po
is the yield stress of softer material -
close to its hardness H:
W = AH (2)
43

As the plastic deformation becomes
severe, the asperity junctions get cold
welded. The force required to shear
the junctions, i.e., friction force due to
adhesion:

Fadh = As (3)
where s is the shear strength of the
softer material.
44

Coefficient of friction due to
adhesion:

Fadh As s
µadh = = = (4)
W AH H
For most materials, the ratio s/H is
almost constant. Typical values for
most metals is 0.2.
45
 Shortcoming of Bowden-Tabor
Simple Adhesion Theory

µ depends only on the properties of

softer material. This yields the same
value of µ for the same material
sliding against a different harder
material. However, experiments prove
that • depends upon the pair of
materials. 46
 Shortcoming of Bowden-Tabor
Simple Adhesion Theory

Under normal atmospheric conditions,

µ is in the order of 0.5 for most of the
metal paris.

µ values are much higher than the

predictions of this theory (even
greater than unity) 47
 2
Modified Adhesion
Theory – Junction
Growth Theory
48

It is based on the combined effect of
normal and tangential stresses.

Contact area predicted on the above

basis is much larger than thaat
predicted using normal load alone.

49

Consider an element at the point of
yielding under a uni-axial compressive
stress po.

A tangential load is than applied

causing an additional shear stress s.

As the element remains at the yield

point, the normal stress reduces to p1
and therefore, the contact area grows . 50

Tresca’s criterion gives:

p + 4s = p
2
1
2 2
o (5)

Von Mises criterion gives:

p + 3s = p
2
1
2 2
o (6)

51

Tresca’s criterion gives:

τ max ≤ τ y ⇒τ max ≤ σ y / 2
⇒ (σ1 − σ 2 ) / 2 ≤ σ y / 2
2
σx −σ y  σy
⇒   + τ xy ≤
2

 2  2
52

Tresca’s criterion gives:

σ x = p1 σ x = 0 τ xy = s
2
 p1  po
⇒   +s ≤
2

2 2

p + 4s = p
2
1
2 2
o (5)
53
 Tribology Lecture - 15

Friction
By
Prof. Punit Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra,

54
 von Mises criterion
Maximum distortion energy should
not exceed its value at the point of
yielding under uniaxial loading
(UY)

σ 1 σ Y σ Y (1 − 2ν )
2
UY = − Y
2E 2 3 E
55
 von Mises criterion

UY =
σ 
2
Y
1−
(1 − 2ν )
2E  3 
σ Y 2(1 + ν ) σ Y
2 2
= =
6 E 6G

56
 von Mises criterion

[(σ 1 − σ 2 ) + (σ 2 − σ 3 ) + (σ 3 − σ1 )
2 2 2
≤
]σ 2
Y
12G 6G

σ + σ 2 − σ1σ 2 ≤ σ
2 2 σ Y2
2
1 Y

σx +σy   σ x − σ y 
2
 2

  + 3  + τ xy  ≤ σ Y
2 2

 2   2  
57
σ x = p1 σ x = 0 τ xy = s

p + 3s = p
2
1
2 2
o (6)
58

Eq. (5) in terms of friction force F =
s.A and normal load W =p1.A:

W + 4F = A p
2 2 2 2
o (7)

W is onstant and po is material
property. Therefore, A increases with
F.
A = (W + 4 F ) / p
2 2 2 2
o (8) 59

Growth of area is limited by:
• Ductility of material
• Presence of weak interfacial films

The presence of weak interface cuases

its failure at a shear stress
si < Bulk shear strength

Therefore, Fmax = Asi (9)

60

Hence,

W + 4F
2 2
max =A p 2 2
o
2
 Fmax  2
⇒W + 4 F
2 2
max =   po
 si 
 p   2

⇒ Fmax   − 4 = W
2 o 2

 si  
61

Coefficient of friction is given by:

Fmax 1
⇒µ = = (10)
W  s  
2

2   − 1
o

 si  
Where so is dthe shear yield stress of
bulk material
62
Variation of µ with si/so
63

When the interface has the same shear
strnegth as the bulk material (si=so), µ
becomes infinite and junction growth
is unlimited.

When interface is weak, • is finite

and drops rapidly as si/so
decreases.

Therefore, Fmax = Asi (9) 64

Deformation Theory
Ploughing

65

In case adhesion term is small,
ploughing becomes a dominant
component of friction.

If one of the surfaces in sliding contact

is softer than the other, the asperities
on the harder surface may penetrate
through the softer one and grooves
may be formed if the shear strength is
exceeded. 66

Ploughing may also be caused by
the impacted or entrapped wear
particles.

Mechanical interlocking of
interacting asperities may take place
at micro or macro scale. This causes
ploughing of one of the surfaces
during sliding.
67

Besides increasing friction,
ploughing may also generate wear
particles which further increase
friction and wear.

Ploughing component of friction

may be estimated using asperities of
various shapes such as:
• Conical, spherical or cylindrical
68
Conical Asperity

69
 Normal load

W = po AH (11)
Frictional force

F = po AV (12)
where Av and AH are the projected
vertical and horizontal areas
70
 Horizontal Projected Area

πr 2
AH = (13)
2
Vertical Projected Area

1
AV = (2r )d = r (r cot θ ) (14)
2
71
 Coefficient of Friction

F po AV AV
µp = = ==
W po AH AH

r cot θ 2 cot θ 2 tan α

2
µp = 2 = = (15)
πr / 2 π π
72