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Delos Santos, Sherrie Ann B. BIOSTATISTICS

NU - 301
Introduction to Data Analysis in an Evidence-Based
Practice Environment
Research and Evidence-Based Nursing
• Evidence-based practice (EBP): Use of best clinical
evidence in making patient care decisions
• Best source of evidence: Systematic research
What is Research?
• Research is systematic inquiry that uses orderly,
disciplined methods (including statistics) to answer
questions or solve problems
• The aim of nursing research is to generate evidence that
can contribute to EBP for nurses
EBP Questions
• How reliable is the evidence?
• What is the magnitude of effects?
• How precise is the estimate of effects?
• Answering these questions requires an understanding of
statistics
What is Statistics?
• Statistics is the term for a collection of mathematical
methods of organizing, summarizing, analyzing, and
interpreting information gathered in a study
Data and Data Analysis
• In the context of a study, the information gathered to
address research questions is data
• In quantitative research, data are usually quantitative
(numbers)
• Quantitative data are subjected to statistical analysis
From Problem to Data Analysis
• Research problem identified (e.g., high stress in
hospitalized children)
• Research question asked: Will a music intervention
reduce stress?
• Concepts defined/measured
• Data collected
• Data analyzed through statistics – Of course, a lot of
things happen in between each step!
Concepts and Variables
• Concept: An abstraction inferred from characteristics or
behaviors
– Examples: height, sex, respiratory rate
• In quantitative studies, concepts are called variables
• A variable is something that takes on different values
– Height, sex, and respiratory rate vary from one person to
the next
Types of Variables
• Important distinction in most studies (with implications
for analysis):
– Independent variable: The hypothesized cause of, or
influence on, an outcome
– Dependent variable: The outcome of interest,
hypothesized to depend on, or be caused by, the
independent variable

Where Do Data Come From?

• Example 1: Interviews/questionnaires – Question:
On a scale from 0 to 10, please rate your level of fatigue
– Answer (Data):
§ Person 1: 7
§ Person 2: 3
§ Person 3: 10
§ Etc.
• Example 2: Observation
– Observer: What is the patient’s pressure ulcer stage (1-
4)? – Rating (Data):
§ Person 1: 1 (Stage 1)
§ Person 2: 4 (Stage 4)
§ Person 3: 2 (Stage 2)
§ Etc
Example 3: Biophysiologic measurements
– Recorder: Patient’s oxygen saturation – Measurement
via pulse oximeter (Data):
§ Person 1: 98%
§ Person 2: 95%
§ Person 3: 89%
§ Etc.
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Delos Santos, Sherrie Ann B. BIOSTATISTICS
NU - 301
Research Questions
• Research questions are the queries researchers seek to
answer through the collection and analysis of data
• Research questions communicate the research variables
and the population (the entire group of interest)
– Example: In hospitalized children (population) does
music (IV) reduce stress (DV)?

Variable Definition
• In studies, variables need to be defined
• Conceptual definition: The theoretical meaning of the
underlying concept
• Operational definition: The precise set of operations and
procedures used to measure the variable

Discrete Versus Continuous Variables

• Variables have different qualities with regard to
measurement potential
– Discrete variables
– Continuous variables

Discrete Variables
• Discrete variable: Categories are indivisible, with a
finite number of values between two points
• Examples:
– Number of siblings: 0, 1, 2, etc. (1.2 is not possible)
– Number of hospital beds (129.034 beds is not possible)

Continuous Variables
• Continuous variable: Can (in theory) assume an infinite
number of values between two points
• Examples: – Time elapsed since birth (e.g., 55.0359
years)

Measurement involves assigning numbers to represent the

amount of an attribute present in a person or object.
Levels of Measurement
• Level of Measurement: A system of classification with
four types of measurement rules that affect the kind of
statistical analysis that is appropriate:
– Nominal
– Ordinal
– Interval
– Ratio

Delos Santos, Sherrie Ann B.
NU - 301
Measurement Level Comparison
• At each successive measurement level, there is more
information, and greater analytic flexibility
• If you start with ratio measures, you can collapse
information to a lower-level measure, but the reverse is
not true
• Higher-level scales are usually (though not always)
preferred
Types of Statistical Analysis
• Calculation
– Manual versus computerized
• Purpose
– Descriptive versus inferential
• Complexity
– Univariate, bivariate, multivariate
Descriptive Statistics
• Researchers collect their data from a sample of study
participants—a subset of the population of interest
• Descriptive statistics describe and summarize data about
the sample
– Examples: Percent female in the sample, average weight
of participants
Inferential Statistics
• Researchers obtain data from a sample but often want to
draw conclusions about a population
• Parameter: A descriptive index for a population –
Example: Average daily caloric intake of all 10-year-old
children in New York
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BIOSTATISTICS
• Statistic: A descriptive index for a sample – Example:
Average daily caloric intake of 300 10-yearold children
from three particular NY schools
• Researchers use statistics to make inferences about
parameters
• Inferential statistics, based on laws of probability, help
researchers draw objective conclusions about a population,
using data from a sample
• Inferential statistics are often used to test hypotheses
(predictions) about relationships between variables
Data Analysis Plan
• Many activities must occur between the collection of
data and analyses to address research questions
• Researchers need to develop a careful data analysis plan
that lays out the analytic steps to be taken
Preanalytic Steps
• Researchers typically begin by: – Making decisions
about how to code their data—including codes to use to
designate missing values
– Entering data into a computer file (e.g. an SPSS file)
– Then giving variables abbreviated variable names, and
inputting additional information about the variables (e.g.,
what the codes mean)
• Many additional steps remain before substantive
analyses begin, including efforts to:
– Clean the data (correct errors)
– Examine the extent of missing data
– Correct problems relating to missing data
– Assess whether assumptions for advanced analyses are
met
– Assess whether there are biases
– Understand the data and characterize the study sample
SPSS and Statistical Analysis
• SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) is
among the most popular statistical software packages for
analyzing research data
• It is user friendly and menu driven
• The data sets offered with this textbook are set up as
SPSS files
The Data Editor in SPSS
• The data editor in SPSS offers a convenient spreadsheet-
like method of creating, editing, and viewing data
• There are two “views” within the data editor:
– Data View: Shows the actual data values
– Variable View: Shows variable information for all
variables
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Delos Santos, Sherrie Ann B. BIOSTATISTICS
NU - 301