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Impact of Formation Damage on Sand Production in Deep Eocene Reservoirs,

Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela: A Case History

Article · May 1999

DOI: 10.2118/54757-MS

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SPE 54757
Impact of Formation Damage on Sand Production in Deep Eocene Reservoirs, Lake
Maracaibo, Venezuela : A Case History
J.J.Tovar, Innovative Engineering Systems Ltd., L. Zerpa and E. Guerra, PDVSA-Intevep
Copyright 1999, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 1999 SPE European Formation Damage
Conference held in The Hague, The Netherlands, 31 May–1 June 1999.
This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review of
information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as
presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to
correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any
position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Papers presented at
SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper
for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is
prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300
words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous
acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O.
Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435.
Abstract
In the deep and layered Eocene reservoirs of southern Lake
Maracaibo, Western Venezuela, some of the most productive
fields such as Ceuta were discovered in 1978. Sanding
problems are common in VLG 3676, Block VII, one of the
most important reservoirs in the area where hydrocarbon
production is from various intercalated thin. A major initiative
was started in 1996 to evaluate the geomechanical, reservoir,
drilling and production profile of the field in order to identify
the problems and the options available to maximise production
and final recovery. Intensive laboratory and field testing
programs were carried out to develop the geomechanical
model required and identify potential formation failure
mechanisms. A review of drilling and completion practices
indicated that formation damage contributed significantly to
the sanding problem, while collapsed casing and, severe
equipment erosion made, loss of production and well integrity
common in the area. The evaluation of reservoir and
production data from five (5) wells in order to quantify
formation damage revealed skin values > 80. The well model
that was developed indicated that optimising drilling and
completion practices could minimise and in some cases
eliminate the sanding problem. A number of recommended
changes to existing practices are now being implemented.
Introduction
Reservoir VLG 3676 has a complex deltaic origin. Its main
hydrocarbons bearing member(1) is the Misoa formation,
whose stratigraphic sand sequence “C” could have up to seven
(7) distinct sands. Production from the reservoir is by solution
gas drive. The general reservoir and fluid properties are shown
in table 1 in appendix 1.
Drilling in this area is complex and high mud densities ( 12.1
– 13.4 ) ppg are often required to reach the reservoir. Swelling
clays and abnormally pressurised zones are common and have
contributed to acute wellbore stability problems that in some
cases required side-tracking of the wells.
Initially, production wells were completed with a single tubing
string and selective isolation of each specific sand. However,
with the onset of sanding problems later wells were completed
with a single string for commingled production. More than 30
wells have been produced from this reservoir, the large
majority with sanding problems for which a level of 10
lbs/1000 bbls was initially set as the manageable limit.
However, throughout the field some wells that have suffered
catastrophic failure (casing collapse) while others have
consistently produced sand at higher levels than the specified
limit. Figure 1 in appendix 1 illustrate sand production levels
through the Ceuta field. The possibility of formation damage
was never explored, as it was assumed that there was “some”
skin present due to the problems encountered during drilling.
Consequently, its magnitude and impact on the sanding
problem had not been considered previously.
The mechanical condition of the wells also causes difficulties
for well intervention, with the problems encountered by
wireline, snubbing and coiled tubing equipment leading to
many fishing operations. Even simple operations such as
pressure surveys can be very difficult have very low success
rate.
Development of the Field Geomechanical model
An extensive data acquisition program was carried out to
define the in-situ field stresses and the mechanical properties
of the rock. Core analysis, field logs, leak-off test and
minifrac test data were analysed to define the geomechanical
characteristics of the area. The in-situ field stresses were
determined using Differential Strain Analysis (DSA), Shear
Wave Anisotropy Analysis (SWAA) and Acoustic Anisotropy
Analysis (AAA) core tests in addition to analysing the drilling
data for 3 wells in the area. These results are presented in
2 J. TOVAR, L. ZERPA, E.GUERRA
Appendix 1, Table 2. Wellbore imaging tools and calliper
logs were also run to identify wellbore breakouts and hence
the stress orientation. The evaluation of the information
showed that in this area:
• The area presents in-situ field stresses which regime
changes with depth from a normal stress regime where
σv > σH > σh to an almost isotropic regime at reservoir
level with σv = σH = σh.
• The stress values are the highest found in Venezuela.
Most of the available data relates to Misoa layers C2 & C3 as
they are the most productive in the reservoir. The average rock
properties of these intervals are presented in Appendix 1,
Table 3.
Well Production Modelling and results
Conventional NODAL* analysis techniques were used to
develop a well performance model. Inflow Performance
Relationships (IPR) and Vertical Lift Performance
Curves(VLP) were developed and validated using Prosper6. A
multi-layer inflow model was developed first, using PLT data
to evaluate the reservoir potential with assumed values of skin.
Then, a VLP was developed to match actual production rates
under existing well conditions. The production simulation
results obtained and validated against actual production data
are given in Appendix 2, Table 4.
Sensitivities such tubing size, GOR, WOR and surface
pressure were reviewed to ensure that the model was properly
developed and to determine the impact of significant changes
on system performance. Fluid invasion profiles at reservoir
level were estimated from drilling data and then compared
with the expected perforation’s length. As shown in Appendix
1, Table 2, the UCS of 7000 - 9000 psi for this reservoir are
significantly higher than those specified in API RP43
therefore, perforation length’s estimates were modified to
account for a high strength rock. The results for well 71 are
summarised in Appendix 2, Table 5. While the invasion
profiles are considered realistic, the calculated perforation’s
length is optimistic for such high rock strength, the well
conditions during perforation and the gun characteristics.
It was obvious from production data and the simulation
results, that some of the layers could produce only under
extreme, high drawdown conditions due to the high skin
values. As a result, in-situ field stresses induced mechanical
failure of the rock and initiated sand production. Pressure
drawdowns of more than 2500 psi were common throughout
the field.
Wellbore stability modelling results
Most of these wells produced sand from the very beginning
although in many cases the quantities were considered
manageable. However; sand production became more critical
and its consequences more severe when depletion effects
started to add to the in-situ stresses. A review of the overall
SPE 54757
hydrocarbon reserves in Ceuta highlighted the importance of
developing an effective strategy to address the sand
production problem in both existing and new wells. Estimated
peak sand production rate for individual Ceuta wells are
shown in Appendix 2, Figure 2. These high volumes obliged
the operator to undertake considerable maintenance on the
wells and facilities in order to maintain production.
Some of the initial efforts concentrated on understanding the
sanding phenomenon and seeking a geomechanical scenario
that would explain the problems encountered. One approach
to defining the sand production problem used a finite elements
model7 (FEM) to evaluate open hole wellbore stability for
vertical and deviated wells by means of a hybrid Cartesian
grid around the proposed geometry. A second method used a
Pseudo 3D simulator8 to determine the critical conditions for
the onset of sand production in a cased and perforated
completion. However, the FE model identified wellbore
stability problems for pressure drawdowns of less than 1000
psi and, both tensile and shear failure modes.
Formation damage and sand production
Modelling results identified the magnitude of the formation
damage and traced its cause to poor drilling and completion
practices in the early wells, reflecting the technology then
available. In some wells, field production history identified
asphaltene deposition as an additional type of damage
resulting from the high-pressure drop across the sand face
during production. Although asphaltene deposition was largely
confined to the perforations area, they have cause some tubing
obstructions in a few wells. By integrating all the data and
inferences from the evaluation process the origins, mechanism
and consequence of the problem could be :
• Original damage for these wells occurred during drilling as
the result of fluid and solids invasion of the formation
matrix.
• Regardless of the type of gun perforation charges guns did
not reach virgin reservoir rock because of the in-situ field
stresses and high rock strength.
• High pressure drawdown was required to produce through
the resulting damage zone beyond the perforation.
• In-situ field stresses and the extreme pressure differentials
across the sand face caused rock failure by both tensile and
shear mechanisms depending on specific well conditions.
• Some wells do not produce sand immediately nor
continuously due to the initial and post failure rock
strength. In these cases, sand production was delayed and
intermittent.
• Sporadic solids production is caused by collapse rock
being removed from the perforation tunnels by turbulence
resulting from changing production conditions such as
choke size, water intrusion, or GOR.
Drilling improvements and results
After drilling derived formation damage was identified as one
of the main cause of sand production, the available options for
SPE 54757IMPACT OF FORMATION DAMAGE ON SAND PRODUCTION IN DEEP EOCENE RESERVOIRS, LAKE MARACAIBO, VENEZUELA : A
CASE HISTORY 3
existing wells could be reviewed. It was concluded that
sidetracking offered the most cost-effective solution, given the
operational history of the field and the type and complexity of
operations that would be needed to rehabilitate large number
of these wells. Other incentives for this approach were the
potential for reaching additional and/or undrained reserves and
that, drain holes could be oriented for the optimum
geomechanical conditions. Of two side-track alternatives
proposed, one was for the 9 5/8” casing string to be recovered
and a new hole drilled the 13 3/8” shoe. However, in the
prevailing circumstances it was considered more appropriate
to side-track with a new hole from the 9 5/8” casing which if
properly implemented would allow a 7.0” string to be set at
the top of the Misoa with a liner across the reservoir section.
The main limitation of this technique was that the contingency
option of having another casing string in case that the 7.0” has
to be set prematurely is no longer available.
The drilling fluid systems were also evaluated with regard to
well control and stability and various options identified for
use in Ceuta. Two main drilling fluid systems were proposed:
one is water base “Drill-in“ type of fluid while the other is a
recently developed, low toxicity, oil base fluid whose main
characteristics are given in Appendix 3, table 6.
Although the latter fluid is being used in the new wells for its
drilling properties, the main factor is its low toxicity for
compliance with the current environmental requirement for
drilling in Lake Maracaibo. Four (4) new wells were drilled
during 1998 with two more to follow in the first quarter of
1999. They have been drilled with their deviation and
orientation conforming to the in-situ field stress distribution
across the field. Well geometry remains unchanged with a 7.0”
string set across the reservoir section allowing the use of
similar or improved perforation equipment. At reservoir level
an alternative casing/liner schedule has been developed to
control sand production through selective zone isolation in
wells where there is high-rate and continuos sand influx.
Expandable Sand screens (ESS) (10) have been selected as the
best method of controlling sand while allowing selective
isolation of zones. A 5.0” x 4 ½” mixed-size liner system for
the side-track option so that the ESS can be set in the larger ID
sections of the liner.
Completion improvements and results
The completion strategy that has been adopted is based on
better understanding of the original problems so that the
existing completion scheme only modified where necessary.
Commingled production continues to be the preferred option
with the selected intervals perforated according to the
particular in-situ stress distribution. More emphasis is now put
on the perforating programme design, so that penetration can
be maximised for shot densities in the range [ 4 -10 ] spf is
one of the main targets. A single 3 ½” string still appropriate
for the expected flow rates even where there is relatively high
GOR and water cut. The mixed liner configuration described
above has been developed for wells requiring individual layer
isolation, so that the ESS can be set in the 5.0” section of the
liner after the selected intervals have been perforated. Once
the screens are in place, the isolation packers and completion
string can be deployed. Retrievable packers and sliding
sleeves are used to provide selective flow control and
isolation. The main characteristics of the ESS are shown in
Appendix 3, Table 7.
By using ESS, sand control problems can be addressed and the
well can still be completed for either selective or commingled
production. Although positioning of the mixed size liner is
critical and installing the ESS is time consuming, this
technique allow wells with severe sanding problems to be
produced at higher rates for longer time. While the potential
for screen plugging and mechanical damage are major
concerns with the mixed liner and ESS combination, the
relative simplicity of the operation indicates that it is of much
lower risk than other sand control method such as multiple
gravel packs or pre-packed screens. The mixed liner and ESS
configuration for deployment is shown in Appendix 3, Figure
3.
The mixed liner combination system could also be employed
for the new wells once ESS technology is available for liner
sizes up to 7.0”. One of the main system limitations is the flow
restriction imposed by the 5.0” x 4 ½” mixed liner. However,
NODAL analysis simulations indicated that the pressure drop
is significant only in the topmost section of the reservoir since
the limited flow contribution from each layer is well within
the accepted flow capacity of 2 7/8” and 2 3/8” tubing
sections used throughout the reservoir. Clearly, wells in
which this system is installed will produce at reduced THFP
but without increasing the pressure drawdown across the sand
face, so the use of the screens will not impose any additional
stresses on the rock. All the new wells so far have been
completed with a non-selective completion and a single string
and are producing 2000 to 3000 bfpd pressure drops of less
than 1500 psi, although the rates are expected to decrease as
reservoir pressure declines. Sand production is managed
through flow rate control and although, present in the new
wells has not yet exceeded the original 10 lbs/1000 bbls
threshold.
Conclusions
1. Formation damage was found to be one of the main causes
of sand production from deep Eocene reservoirs in Lake
Maracaibo, particularly in the Ceuta field. Skin values of
up to 120 and limited penetration of the perforation
charges (< 10 in) high pressure drawdowns on the sand
face are required in order to produce the reservoir. This
drawdown induces sand production.
2. A transgressive regime for the in-situ field stresses is
present in the area contributing to the rock failure hence
sand production. Reservoir rock was found to have very
high strength values ( > 7000 psi UCS ) that under more
lenient geomechanical and production conditions would
not fail.
4 J. TOVAR, L. ZERPA, E.GUERRA SPE 54757

3. Wellbore stability simulations for both open hole and UCS = Uni-axial compressive strength
cased hole indicated that in some cases wellbore failure spf = Shots per foot
occurs during the drilling phase. ppg = Pounds per gallon
4. Proposed modifications to drilling and completion bfpd = Barrels of fluid per day
practices in this area have highlighted the need to minimise
formation damage. Improvements that have been Acknowledgements
successfully introduced include, the use of less damaging
drilling fluids and geomechanical orientation of wellbores We would like to thank management of PDVSA and IESL for
and perforations. permission to publish this work. Also, to R. Carbonnel and M.
5. Re-completion options have been developed for both Sanchez at Intevep, A. Vasquez at VVA and PDVSA’s field
existing and new wells in the Ceuta field with side- personnel for the valuable discussions and contribution on the
tracking as the most practical remedy for the existing technical and operational aspects of this project.
wells.
Appendix 1 - Reservoir & Geomechanical data
6. A system combining a mixed size liner and Expandable
Sand Screens has been developed for wells with high rates
and continuous sand production, which can be applied to Table 1 - Reservoir and Fluid Data
both new and existing wells.
7. Sand production has been reduced to manageable levels by
orienting the wellbore according to the in-situ stress Top of Misoa 14300 feet
distribution and by using less damaging drilling fluids. Initial PR 10163 psi
Reservoir Temperature 326 o F
References Average Porosity
Average Permeability
1. Intera : ”Reservoir Study of the Eocene “C” / VLG3676 ”, Crude density [ 26 – 60 ] o API
Confidential report, Caracas, Venezuela 1996.
Saturation pressure Pb 2382 psi
2. Maraven S.A.: “Area 2 South . Current Sand Control Strategy,
technical sessions”, Caracas, Venezuela, February 1997. Average GOR 750 scf/std bbl
3. Cabrera J. and Castillo J.: “ Estudio de Arenamiento zona Formation volume factor 1.605
Norte, Area 2-Sur, Campo Ceuta., Simulacion Numerica Oil viscosity (reservoir) 0.39 Cp
Geomecanica Seudo-D”, technical document INT-3981,1997, Gas gravity 0.823
Caracas, Venezuela,October 1997.
4. Innovative Engineering Systems Ltd.: “Development of Re-
completion Options for the Ceuta Field”, Confidential reports,
Phase II & III, Aberdeen, Scotland, 1997.
5. Terratek Inc.: “Static and Dynamic Properties and In-Situ Table 2 - Minimum Horizontal Stress Orientation (5)
Stress Directions”, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA, 1997.
6. Petroleum Experts Ltd.: “ Prosper User Manual”, Version 4.5,
Edinburgh, Scotland, 1996. Well Depth SWAA DSA AAA
7. Computer Modelling Group .:”Wellbore Stability 43 15208 238 o - 225 o
Simulation for Vertical and Horizontal wells “, June 68 15272 216 o 230 o 355 o
95. 16024 324 o 350 o -
8. Innovative Engineering Systems Ltd.: “Sand 80 16208 246 o 337 o 308 o
Production Management System ”, Aberdeen, 16403 308 o 334 o 260 o
Scotland, UK, 1998 16718 209 o 291 o 262 o
9. Innovative Engineering Systems Ltd.: “Confidential
correspondence”, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK, 1998
10. Petroline WellSystems. “ Expandable Sand Screens “,
Aberdeen, Scotland, UK, October 1997.
Table 3 - Rock mechanical Properties - C2, C3
Nomenclature
Well Depth UCS E ν
σv = Maximum vertical stress, psi [ feet ] [ psi ] [ x 106 psi ]
σH = Maximum horizontal stress, psi 38 14859 8900 2.27 -
σh = Minimum Horizontal stress, psi 68 15272 226001 2.58 0.35
PR = Reservoir pressure, psi 15031 7360 1.38 0.36
THFP = Flowing tubing head pressure 82 15065 7205 1.22 0.21
GOR = Gas /oil ratio 15071 9130 1.97 0.43
WC = Water cut 43 15209 6969 1.29 0.29
1
UCS value at 5460 psi confinement pressure, all other values at 0 psi.
SPE 54757IMPACT OF FORMATION DAMAGE ON SAND PRODUCTION IN DEEP EOCENE RESERVOIRS, LAKE MARACAIBO, VENEZUELA : A
CASE HISTORY 5

Table 5 - Invasion profile and Perforation length

Depth Perf. Length Invasion Remarks

[ feet ] [ in ] [ in ]
14789 - 14814 7.8 12.0 -
14908 - 14916 8.0 9.5 -
14928 - 14935 7.3 10.1 -
15168 - 15174 9.2 8.1 -

Sand Production History - Ceuta

10000

1000
lbs x 1000 bbls

100

Figure 1 – 1996 Sand production levels - Ceuta field

10

Appendix 2 - Well Performance Analysis

1
Table 4 - Well performance results
20 22 34 38 40 43 55 61 62 64 68 71 74 75 80
Well No.
1
Well No. Qmax Qlog Skin
Layers [ stb/day ] [ stb/day ]
68 3 9067 1950 > 120
61 3 - 1409 > 90
34 1 11934 2222 > 135
72 2 7500 3500 < 30
1
For S= 0
6 J. TOVAR, L. ZERPA, E.GUERRA SPE 54757

Appendix 3 - Drilling and Completion information

Figure 3 - ESS Deployment and Installation sequence

Table 6 - LT Hydrogenated Oil Based fluid properties (9)

Property Diesel Vassa Vassa

Oil LP-120 LP-100
Distillation range [ oC ] 270 - 330 260 - 330 226 - 270
Density API 36.5 41 43.6
Viscosity @ 40 oC [ cSt ] > 3.5 3.5 2.2
Aromatic content [ % ] > 35 0.6 0.6
Sulphur content [ ppm ] 2500 15 15
Lubricity index 0.12 0.15 0.15
Paraffin content [ % ] - 36.1 33.1
Naftenes [ % ] - 63.9 66.9
Density @ 15 oC 0.84 0.82 0.81

Table 7 - Mixed liner & ESS Specifications (10)

Specifications O.D. I.D. Remarks

[ in ] [ in ]
Previous casing 7.00 6.27 Top Misoa
Max. Liner diameter 5.00 3.91 ID is drift
Min. Liner diameter 4.50 3.25 ID is drift
Unexpanded dimensions 2.83 1.93 -
Expanded dimensions 4.41 3.46 -
Maximum expansion force - - 8500 lbsf
Screen mesh size - - 20/40

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