Module 3 Anatomy I Arthrology

G e n e r a l V e t e r i n a r y M a c r o s c o p i c A n a t o m y : A r t h r o l o g y | 23
• Articulation or Joint- formed by the union of two or more bones of the skeleton.
• Arthrology (G. Arthros, joints + logos, study) - the study of joints.
• Joints can be classified by several criteria:

1. Number of bones articulating
2. Anatomical (based on the nature of development, uniting medium & form of joint surfaces)
3. Physiological (based on function degree of movement)
4. Combination of the second and third
• NUMBER OF BONES ARTICULATING

o Classified by the number of bones articulating with each other.
1. Simple joints- articulation between two bones (e.g., hip).
2. Compound joints- articulations between more than two bones (e.g., stifle or elbow).
• STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
o Grouped by their uniting medium into:
1. Fibrous joint
2. Cartilaginous joint
3. Synovial joint
1. Fibrous Joint
Formerly the synarthrosis.
An articulation united by FIBROUS TISSUE;
Allowing little or no movement, these are often temporary joints that later ossify (synostosis). The chief
classes in this group of joints are as follows:
• Suture
• Syndesmosis
• Gomphosis
Suture- joints in the flat bones of the skull united by sutural ligament.
• Serrate suture articulation by means of reciprocally alternating processes (interfrontal suture).
• Squamos suture articulation by overlapping of reciprocally beveled edges (between the squamos part
of the temporal bone & parietal bone).
• Plane suture bones meet at an essentially right-angled edge or surface (internasal suture).
• Foliate suture the edge of one bone fits into a fissure or recess of an adjacent bone
(zygomaticomaxillary suture).
Syndesmosis (G. syndesmos, ligament) - the uniting medium is white fibrous or elastic tissue or a mixture.
Examples include:
• Interosseous ligament between the radius and ulna
• Intermetacarpal joints
• Attachments of costal cartilages to each other (costal arch)
• Attachment of the hyoid apparatus to the petrous temporal bone
Gomphosis- applied to the implantation of the tooth in the alveolus of the jaw bone. This is held together by
fibrous connective tissue, the periodontal ligament.
2. Cartilaginous Joint
An articulation united by:
• Hyaline cartilage (Synchondrosis)
• Fibrocartilage (Symphysis)
These also can be slightly movable or immovable.
Synchondrosis- Primary cartilage joint; joints united by hyaline cartilage; it is a temporary one, for the
cartilage is converted into bone (synostosis) before adult life. Examples include:
• Epiphyseal plates
• Basioccipital with the basisphenoid bone
• Costonchondral junction
Symphysis- Secondary cartilage joint/ Amphiarthosis; joints united by fibrocartilage during some phase of
their existence. Examples include:
• Mandibular symphysis
• Pelvic symphysis
• Joints between sternebrae and vertebral bodies
3. Synovial Joint
An articulation united by a synovial joint capsule.
These are freely movable.
• FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
o Indicates the degree of motion possible.
1. Immovable Joint (Synarthrosis) the fixed, tight motion allowing little or no movement and having great
strength (sutures, synchondrosis).
2. Slightly Movable Joint (Amphiarthrosis) joint connected by either connective fibrous tissue or
fibrocartilage. Amphi implies both immovable and movable, allowing only slight motion (syndesmosis,
symphysis).
3. Freely movable (Diarthrosis) the uniting medium may be considered the joint capsule (synovial joint).
KHAN LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM

Department of Basic Veterinary Sciences, CVM-USM
• SYNOVIAL JOINT- Diarthrodial Joint (movable joint); the true joint of the extremities—the most common type—
permitting the greatest degree of movement. Though some modifications (intrarticular ligaments, menisci, fat pads,
synovial projections (plicae/ villi) are present, it is generally characterized by:
1. Joint cavity
2. Joint capsule
3. Synovial fluid
4. Articular cartilage
o Joint Capsule- the two-layered structure surrounding the joint, composed of an:
1. OUTER fibrous layer
2. INNER synovial membrane.
o Fibrous layer (capsular ligament) - the white and yellow elastic fibrous part of the joint capsule; attaches near the
periosteum on or near the
margin of the articular
cartilage.
o Synovial membrane- the
inner vascular connective
tissue lining of the capsule;
responsible for the production
of synovial fluid; covers all
structures inside the joint
except the articular cartilage.
o Synovial fluid- the viscous
liquid produced by the
synovial membrane to
lubricate the joint, supply
nutrients, and remove waste
from the hyaline articular
cartilage; consistency of raw
egg white.
o Synovial fold- is an extension of the synovial membrane containing fats.
o Synovial villi- numerous processes in the periphery.
o Articular cartilage- the translucent, bluish-tinged cartilage usually hyaline, covering the articular ends of the bone; it
has no nerves or blood vessels; it reduces the effects of concussion and friction by its compressibility, elasticity and
smoothness.
The cartilage is thickest in the youngs and in areas of highest pressure and friction.
o Joint cavity- a unique feature of a synovial joint. It is little more than a potential space containing a trace of synovial
fluid.
o Ligament- a strong band of inelastic white fibrous connective tissue uniting bones; functions to keep joint surfaces in
apposition and still allow movement.
1. Intracapsular ligaments located WITHIN the joint (cruciate ligaments of the stifle).
2. Extracapsular ligaments located OUTSIDE of or as a part of the joint capsule (collateral ligaments).
o Meniscus or Disc- a plate of fibrocartilage partially or completely dividing a joint cavity into two parts.
1. Stifle joint (incomplete)
2. Temporomandibular joint (complete)
o Bursa- a sac-like structure between different tissue that reduces friction between these tissues; resembles a synovial
joint capsule; it is located between:
1. Skin and bones
2. Tendons and bones
3. Muscle and bones
4. Ligament and bones
o Synovial Sheath- a structure similar to a bursa that wraps around a tendon; reduces friction between the tendon and
underlying bones.
o Synovial joints may be classified in several ways:

1. Number of articular surfaces
2. Shape or form of the articular surfaces
3. Function of the joint
o Number of Articular Surfaces
1. Simple joint- two articular surfaces enclosed in a joint capsule (shoulder joint).
2. Compound joint- more than two articular surfaces enclosed within the same joint capsule (stifle joint).
o Forms/Shape and Function
1. Plane (Arthrodial) Joint- MULTIAXIAL articulation having essentially flat articular surfaces allowing
simple gliding or sliding motion.
• Carpal and tarsal joints
• Cranial and caudal articulation between vertebrae
• Costotransverse joint
2. Ball-and-socket (Spheroidal) Joint/Enarthrosis- MULTIAXIAL articulation consisting of a spheroidal
head fitting into a pit or socket allowing universal movement.
• Shoulder joint
• Hip joint
3. Hinge (Ginglymus) Joint- A UNIAXIAL joint allowing movement at right angles to the bones involved
(flexion and extension).
• Elbow joint
4. Pivot (Trochoid) Joint- A UNIXIAL joint allowing rotation around a longitudinal axis of a bone.
• Atlantoaxial joint
• Radioulnar joint
5. Condylar Joint- A UNIAXIAL joint formed by two condyles of one bone fitting into concavities of another
bone.; flexion and extension and a little rotation.
• Atlanto-occipital joint
• Temporomandibular joint
• Femorotibial joint
6. Ellipsoidal joint- A BIAXIAL joint formed by an ellipsoidal convex surface fitting into a cavity; movement
in two planes is allowed with a small amount of rotation.
• Radiocarpal joint
7. Saddle joint- A BIAXIAL with the articular surfaces of the two bones concave in one direction and convex
in the other; they fit together like two saddles, one rotated at 90 degrees; allows some motions as the
ellipsoid and some rotation
• Distal interphalangeal joint
o Movements of Synovial Joints

1. Flexion (Folding) - decreasing the angle between two bones (<180 degrees).
2. Extension (Straightening) - increasing the angle between two bones (>180 degrees).
3. Dorsal and Ventral Flexion- bending the spinal column dorsally or ventrally.
4. ABduction- moving a part away from the median plane, or a digit away from the axis of the limb.
5. ADduction- moving a part toward the median plane or a digit toward the axis of the limb.
6. Circumduction- movement circumscribing a cone shape, accomplished by combining flexion, abduction,
extension and adduction in order.
7. Rotation- movement around the long axis of a part.
8. Universal- all the above movements.
JOINTS OF THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Thoracic Limb Pelvic Limb

• Shoulder joint • Pelvic symphysis, Sacroiliac joint, Hip joint
• Elbow Joint (Humeroradial, • Stifle joint (Femoropatellar, Femorotibial)
Humeroulnar,Proximal radioulnar)
• Radioulnar Joints (Proximal and Distal) • Tibiofibular joints (Proximal and Distal)
• Carpal Joints (Antebrachiocarpal, Middle carpal, • Tarsal joint (Talocrural, Intertarsal, Middle tarsal
Carpometacarpal, Intercarpal) Tarsometatarsal, Intratarsal)
• Metacarpal joints (Intermetacarpal, • Metatarsal joints (Intermetatarsal,
Metacarpophalangeal) Metatarsophalangeal)
• Phalangeal joints (Proximal interphalangeal, • Phalangeal joints (Proximal interphalangeal,
Distal interphalangeal) Distal interphalangeal)
JOINTS OF THE AXIAL SKELETON
Skull Vertebrae Ribs and Sternum

• Temporomandibular joint • Atlanto-occipital joint • Costovertebral joint
• Joints of the auditory ossicles • Atlantoaxial joint • Sternocostal joint
• Joints of the Hyoid apparatus • Joints of the vertebral • Costochondral joints
articular processes
• Mandibular symphysis • Joints between the vertebral
bodies
• Synchondroses of the skull
• Sutures of the skull
Assignment:
1. Describe each joint according to type, class and movement and the name of the participating bones.
2. Kindly follow the table format in one whole sheet yellow paper.

REVIEW OF CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS:
FIBROUS JOINT
Types: (S.S.G.)
1. S_____________________ (Immovable; Synarthrosis)
2. S_____________________ (Slightly movable; Amphiarthrosis)
3. G_____________________ (Slightly movable; Amphiarthrosis)
Points to Remember:
Syndesmosis is from the Greek ‘Syndesmos’, meaning ligament.
A Gomphosis is not actually a joint.
Periodontal Ligament—the structure that connects the tooth to its socket.
CARTILAGINOUS JOINT
Types:
1. SYN____________________ (Immovable; Synarthrosis)
2. SYM____________________ (Slightly Movable; Amphiarthrosis)
Points To Remember:
H__________________may ossify during adult (Synostosis).
F ________________ MAY or MAY NOT ossify during adult.
Points To Remember:
The synovial membrane is HIGHLY
VASCULARIZED, NERVE RICH and produces
SYNOVIAL FLUID.
The synovial membrane covers all the structures n
the joint capsule but NOT the
______________________.
_____________________ is NOT
SYNOVIAL JOINT (True Joint) VASCULARIZED and NOT INNERVATED.
Ligament- connects BONE to _______________.

Intracapsular (INSIDE)
Extracapsular (OUTSIDE)
Meniscus or _______________
Complete
_______________________
Incomplete
______________________
Synovial Bursa (Partial) versus Synovial Sheath (Complete)
REDUCES FRICTION; REDUCES INJURY

TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINT
1. Plane (Gliding) Joint
Thoracic • Carpometacarpal Joint

Limb • Intercarpal Joint
• Joint of the accessory carpal bone
Pelvic Limb • Sacroiliac Joint
• Femoropatellar Joint
• Proximal and Distal Tibiofibular
Joint
• Proximal and Distal Intertarsal
Joint
• Tarsometatarsal Joint
Axial • Joints of the vertebral articular
processes
• Costotransverse Joint
2. Ball-and-Socket (Spheroidal/Enarthrosis)
Thoracic Limb • Shoulder Joint

Pelvic Limb • Hip Joint
Axial • Costovertebral Joint
3. Hinge (Ginglymus
Thoracic Limb • Humeroulnar Joint

• Humeroradial Joint
• Metacarpophalangeal Joint
Pelvic Limb • Tarsocrural Joint
• Metatarsophalangeal Joint
Axial
4. Pivot (Trochoid) Joint
Thoracic Limb • Proximal Radioulnar Joint

• Distal Radioulnar Joint
Pelvic Limb
Axial • Atlanto-axial Joint
• Sternocostal Joint
5. Condylar Joint
Thoracic Limb • Middle Carpal Joint

Pelvic Limb • Femorotibial Joint
Axial • Temporomandibular Joint
• Atlanto-occipital joint
6. Ellipsoidal Joint
Thoracic Limb • Antebrachiocarpal Joint

Pelvic Limb
Axial
7. Saddle Joint
Thoracic Limb • Proximal and Distal Interphalangeal

Joint (PIP and DIP)
Pelvic Limb • Same with thoracic limb joints
Axial

JOINTS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE THORACIC LIMB

1. Shoulder Joint
2. Elbow Joint
3. Carpal Joints
4. Metacarpal Joints
5. Phalangeal Joints
SHOULDER JOINT
• Glenohumeral/Scapulohumeral Joint
• Ball-and-Socket Type (Spheroidal, Enarthrosis)
• Simple joint between the glenoid cavity of the scapula and the head of the humerus.
• MULTIAXIAL-freely movable (diarthrodial)
Important Parts:
o Intertubercular (Bicipital) Groove a sulcus between greater and lesser tubercles holding the biceps brachii
tendon.
o Synovial sheath of the biceps brachii tendon an extension of the joint capsule around the tendon of the biceps
brachii muscles as it passes the bicipital grroove.
o Transverse humeral ligament holds the tendon with its synovial sheath in the groove.
o Medial and Lateral glenohumeral ligaments the irregularly medial and lateral thickening of the fibrosa of joint
capsule.
Clinical:
o Osteochondrosis a failure of cartilage maturation; most common in the humeral head of dogs.
ELBOW JOINT
• Cubital/Humeroradioulnar Joint
• Hinge (Ginglymus)
• Compound joint formed between the humerus, the radius and ulna
1. Humeroradial joint (Capitulum humeri + Articular fovea of the radius)
o Transmits most of the weight supported by the limb.
o Ginglymus
2. Humeroulnar joint (Trochlear humeri + Semilunar notch of the ulna)
o Stabilizes and restricts the movement of the joint to a sagittal plane.
o Ginglymus
3. Proximal radioulnar joint (Articular circumference of the radius + Radial notch of the ulna)
o Allows the rotation of the antebrachium.
o Trochoid
Important Parts:
o Lateral (ULNAR) collateral ligament proximally, from the lateral epicondyle of the humerus-> divides into
two-> cranial crus into eminence distal to the neck/caudal crus into the ulna-> at the articular circumference of
the radius they togetherly blend with the annular ligament.
o Medial (RADIAL) collateral ligament weaker than the lateral collateral ligament; proximally, from the medial
epicondyle of the humerus-> crosses the annular ligament distally-> divides into two-> cranial crus into the
radial tuberosity/caudal crus into the interosseous space and ulna.
o Annular ligament of the radius a thin band running transversely around the head of the radius and attaching at
the ends of the ulna; it lies under the collateral ligaments.
o The lateral movements of the elbow joint is limited because:
The strong collateral ligaments located on the sides of the joint restricts its movement to just flexion and
extension.
The anconeal process of the ulna fits into the olecranon fossa of the humerus during forward protrusion.
Clinical:
o Olecranon bursitis (Capped Elbow) a false subcutaneous bursa between the skin and the olecranon due to
repeated trauma.
o Elbow luxation dislocation of the anconeal process (laterally or medially) away from the olecranon fossa.
o Lameness caused by the following:
1. Ununited anconeal process
2. Fragmented medial coronoid process
3. Osteochondrosis of the humeral trochlea
RADIOULNAR JOINTS
1. Proximal radioulnar joint
2. Distal radioulnar joint (Ulnar notch of the radius +articular circumference of the ulna)
o A part of the antebrachiocarpal joint
o Trochoid
CARPAL JOINTS
• Hinge (ginglymus) consisting of joints as follow:
1. Antebrachiocarpal joint or the Radiocarpal joint (distal radius and ulna + proximal row of carpal bones)
o Ellipsoid

2. Middle carpal joint (proximal + distal rows of carpal bones)

o Condylar
3. Carpometacarpal joint (distal row of carpal bones + bases of metacarpal bones)
o Plane
4. Intercarpal joints (between individual carpal bones)
o Plane
Important Structures:
o Flexor Retinaculum (Transverse Palmar Carpal Ligament) modification of the carpal fascia; it connects the
medial side of the carpus and the accessory carpal bone; with the carpal bones, it forms the carpal canal.
o Carpal Canal formed by the accessory carpal bones dorsally and the flexor retinaculum on the palmar side.
o Structures passing through the carpal canal:
1. Tendons and synovial sheaths of the superficial and deep digital flexors
2. Ulnar and median nerves
3. Arteries and veins (radial, ulnar and palmar)
o Palmar Carpal Fibrocartilage or Ligament covers the palmar side of the carpus. Its functions are the
following:
1. It flattens the palmar irregularities.
2. Provides a smooth surface to the carpal canal.
3. It serves for the origin of several muscles.
o Special ligaments of the carpus:
1. Short Radial Collateral Ligament
Straight part from the tubercle above the styloid process to the most medial part of the radial carpal.
Oblique part from the styloid process, it runs to the palmaromedial surface of the radial carpal.
2. Short Ulnar Collateral Ligament
From the styloid process of the ulna to the ulnar carpal.
Clinical:
o VaLgus lateral deviation of the bones distal to the joint in question.
o Varus medial deviation of the bones distal to the joint in question.
o Knocked knees or carpal valgus lateral deviation of the joint distal to the carpus.
o Bow legged or carpal varus medial deviation of the bones distal to the carpus
METACARPAL JOINTS
• Intermetacarpal Joints
o Between proximal ends of adjacent metacarpal bones
o Syndesmosis (Interosseous metacarpal ligament)
• Metacarpophalangeal Joints
o Distal ends of the metacarpal bones + proximal ends of proximal phalanges + 2 palmar sesamoid bones
o Modified hinge (ginglymus)
o Interosseous Metacarpal Ligament distal to the synovial part, it is a fibrous tissue uniting the bones. Distal to
these ligaments are the INTEROSSEOUS SPACES of the metacarpus.
o Two Collateral Ligaments unite the osseous part of the joint. These medial and lateral collateral ligaments
stabilize the sides of all metacarpophalangeal and phalangeal joints.
o Intersesamoidean Ligaments short, cartilaginous ligaments uniting the paired sesamoid bones and cover their
palmar surfaces.
o Lateral and Medial Sesamoidean Ligaments short, flat bands on each side of the metacarpophalangeal joint.
o Distal Sesamoidean Ligamenta thin, flat band from the distal ends of the sesamoid bones and attaches to the
palmar side of the proximal phalanx.
o Cruciate Ligaments of the Sesamoidean bones from the bases of sesamoid bones to the proximal phalanges.
PHALANGEAL JOINTS
• Proximal Interphalangeal (PIP) Joints
o Proximal phalanges (heads) + Middle phalanges (fossae) of digits II to V
o Saddle-type
• Distal Interphalangeal (DIP) Joints
o Middle phalanges (heads) + Distal phalanges (fossae)
o Saddle-type
o Collateral Ligaments
From the fossae on the sides of the distal ends of the proximal phalanges-> proximal ends of the middle
phalanges (PIP).
From the fossae on the sides of the head of middle phalanx-> distal phalanges (DIP).
o Dorsal Ligaments paired ligaments across the dorsal part of the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint. They are
responsible for keeping the claw retracted. Flexion of the DIP by the deep digital flexor is responsible for
protrusion of the claw.
o Interdigital Ligaments form a continuous superficial, V-shaped ligamentous structure which not only holds
the digits together but also acts as a FASTENING MECHANISM for the large heart-shaped metacarpal pad.
JOINTS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE THORACIC LIMB

1. Pelvic symphysis
2. Sacroiliac joint
3. Hip joint
4. Stifle joint
5. Tibiofibular joint
6. Tarsal/Hock Joint
7. Metatarsal Joints
PELVIC SYMPHYSIS
• The symphyseal, slightly movable (fibrocartilaginous) joint between the right and the left hip bones (os coxae).
• The bones are united by cartilage in the young animal and is gradually replaced by bone.
o Cranial half: Pubis Symphysis (pubic bones)
o Caudal half: Ischial Symphysis (ischii bones)
SACROILIAC JOINT
• Sacroiliac synchondrosis
• Wings of the sacrum and the auricular surface of the ilium
• Combined cartilaginous and synovial joint
• Relatively immovable (amphiarthrosis)
o Ventral and Dorsal Sacroiliac Ligaments reinforce the tight joint capsule along the margin of the joint.
o Sacrotuberous Ligament a fibrous cord flattened at both ends and extends from the sacrum and first caudal
vertebra to the ischiatic tuberosity. It partially or wholly serves for the attachment of several muscles.
HIP JOINT
• Coxofemoral articulation
• Ball-and-Socket (Spheroidal)/Enarthrosis
• Head of the femur and the acetabulum of the hip bone
• MULTIAXIAL- freely movable (diarthrodial)
o Acetabular Lip the band of fibrocartilage around the rim of the acetabulum increasing its depth.
o Acetabular Notch the normal defect in the ventromedial aspect of the acetabulum.
o Transverse Acetabular Ligament crosses the acetabular notch completing the acetabular cavity.
o Ligament of the Head of the Femur (Round Ligament; Capital Ligament) the short intracapsular ligament
extending from the acetabular fossa to the notch on the head of the femur (fovea capitis).
Clinical:
o Hip Dysplasia malformed hip joint resulting in a progressive degenerative diseases (high incidence in some
breeds). Treatment:
1. Pectineal tenotomy- cutting the pectineus muscle.
2. Osteotomy- cutting the neck and head of femur.
3. Remodelling of the acetabulum (cutting and repositioning)
STIFLE JOINT
• Genual articulation/Knee Joint
• Femur and patella; femur and tibia
• Condylar
• UNIAXIAL (Like hinge joint with a little rotation)
• Femoropatellar Joint
o Patella + Trochlea of the femur.
o Has a spacious joint capsule
• Femorotibial Joint
o Femoral condyles + Tibial condyles + Menisci
o Joint Capsule is the largest in the body; forms three sacs.
o Medial and Lateral Menisci (G. crescents) the crescentic fibrocartilaginous discs between the tibial and
femoral articulating condyles; compensate for the incongruence of the articulating bones. It llows spread of the
synovial fluid over articular cartilages. Many ligaments of the menisci help stabilize the joint.
o Meniscal Ligaments attach the menisci to the tibia and femur; one from the lateral meniscus to the femur and
one transverse ligament between menisci.
Femoral Ligament of the Lateral Meniscus (Meniscofemoral Ligament) the only femoral
attachment of the menisci; from the caudal axial angle of the lateral meniscus medial femoral
condyle.
Transverse or Intermeniscal Ligament from caudal side of the cranial tibial ligament of the medial
meniscus-> cranial part of the cranial tibial ligament of the lateral meniscus.
Cranial Tibial Ligament of the Medial Meniscus cranial axial angle of medial meniscus-> cranial
intercondyloid area of the tibia.
Caudal Tibial Ligament of the Medial Meniscus caudal axial angle of the medial meniscus->
caudal intercondyloid area of the tibia.

Cranial Tibial Ligament of the Lateral Meniscus to the cranial intercondyloid area of the tibia
caudal -> cranial tibial attachment of the medial meniscus.
Caudal Tibial Ligament of the Lateral Meniscus caudal axial angle of the lateral meniscus ->
popliteal notch of the tibia.
o Collateral Ligaments- Strong stabilizing bands on the medial and lateral sides of the stifle
Medial (Tibial) Collateral Ligament from the medial epicondyle of the femur-> medial border of the
tibia distal to the medial tibial condyle.
Lateral (Fibular) Collateral Ligament from the lateral epicondyle of the femur-> tendon of origin of
the popliteus muscle-> head of the fibula.
o Cruciate Ligaments (L. resembling a cross)- the cruciate ligaments decussate or cross each other, are intra-
articular and covered by a synovial membrane.
Cranial (Lateral) Cruciate Ligament from the caudomedial part of the lateral condyle of the femur->
intercondyloid fossa cranial intercondyloid area of the tibia; prevents cranial movement of the tibia
in relationship to the femur.
Caudal (Medial) Cruciate Ligamentfrom the lateral surface of the medial femoral condyle->
popliteal notch of the tibia.
o Patellar Ligaments - part of the tendon of insertion of the quadriceps muscle between the patella and the tibial
tuberosity.
o Medial and Lateral Femoropatellar Ligaments - from epicondyles to the patella.
o Medial and Lateral Parapatellar Fibrocartilages - the hook of fibrocartilage attached to the both sides of the
patella. The lateral and medial cartilages ride on the crests of the femoral trochlea and tend to prevent
dislocation of the patella.
MENISCI and LIGAMENTS OF THE STIFLE (KNEE) JOINT IN THE DOG

Clinical:
o Cranial (Anterior) Drawer Sign the pathologic movement of the tibia cranial to the femur due to the rupture
of the cranial cruciate ligament. It can be due to trauma from the lateral side (HBC) which also tears the medial
collateral ligament and medial meniscus.
o Patellar Luxation the displacement of the patella medially or laterally out of the femoral trochlea. Medial
luxation is more common in small breeds and lateral luxation more common in large breeds of dogs.
TIBIOFIBULAR JOINTS
• Proximal Tibiofibular Joint
o Facies articularis fibularis of the tibia + Head of the fibula
o Synovial/Syndesmosis
• Distal Tibiofibular Joint
o Facies articularis malleoli of the tibia + Distal end of the fibula
o Synovial/Syndesmosis
o Medial Cranial Tibiofibular Ligament from the lateral malleolus to the adjacent lateral surface of the tibia.
o Lateral Collateral Ligament has short (deep) and long (superficial) parts.
TARSAL JOINTS
• Hock Joint
• Compound hinge (ginglymus)
• UNIAXIAL (Flexion and Extension)
1. Talocrural (Tibiotarsal) Joint (Trochlear ridges of the Talus + Cochlea of the Tibia)
o Most movable
o Hinge (ginglymus)
2. Intertarsal (Proximal & Distal) Joint

o Proximal (Talus & Calcaneus + Central tarsal & Fourth tarsal
o Distal/Centrodistal (Central tarsal + Tarsals I, II, III)
o Plane
3. Tarsometatarsal Joint (Distal row of tarsal bones + Metatarsal bones I-V)
o Plane
4. Intratarsal Joint (Between individual tarsal bones)
o Plane
o Tarsal Joint Capsule consists of Fibrous and Synovial Parts.
Fibrous- from the distal end of the tibia and fibula to proximal end of metatarsal bones.
Synovial- encloses the individual tarsal joints and are called the SYNOVIAL SACS:
1. Talocrural sac
2. Proximal intertarsal sac
3. Distal intertarsal sac
4. Tarsometatarsal sac
o Medial Collateral Ligament
Long part- from the medial (tibial) malleolus to the first tarsal and to metatarsals I and II.
Short part- from the long part to the talus or to the sustentaculum tali of the calcaneus.
o Lateral Collateral Ligament
Long part-from the lateral (fibular) malleolus to the base of metatarsal V, calcaneus and fourth tarsal.
Short part- under the long part from the lateral malleolus to tuber calcanei or to distal of the talus.
o Proximal Transverse Ligament of the Tarsus (Proximal Extensor Retinaculum) the transverse ligament across
the distal end of the tibia holding down the tendons of the long digital extensor and cranial tibial muscles.
o Distal Transverse Ligament of the Tarsus (Distal Extensor Retinaculum) the transverse loop that holds the
tendon of the long digital extensor muscle.
o Tarsal Canal passage formed by the tarsal bones and the flexor retinaculum containing:
1. Tendon and sheath of long digital extensor
2. Plantar branch of saphenous artery and vein
3. Median and lateral plantar nerves.
The INTERMETATARSAL, METATARSOPHALANGEAL and INTERPHALANGEAL Joints lll

• Resemble the analogous joints of the thoracic limb.
JOINTS OF THE SKULL

1. Tempormandibular Joint
2. Mandibular Symphysis
3. Joints of the Auditory Ossicles
4. Joints of the Hyoid Apparatus
5. Sutures of the Skull
6. Synchondroses of the Skull
TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT
• Condylar Joint
• Condyles of the manidble and the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone
• UNIAXIAL
o Disc/Meniscus a thin meniscus lying between the two articular surfaces of the joint.
Dorsal compartment- between the disc and the temporal bone.
Ventral compartment- between the disc and mandible.
o Lateral Ligament strengthened fibrous part of the joint capsules in the lateral portion.
MANDIBULAR SYMPHYSIS
• The median cartilaginous joints uniting the right and left mandibular bodies.
• The opposed articular surfaces are interdigitated, and the fibrocartilage of the symphysis persists throughout life.
JOINTS OF THE AUDITORY OSSICLES

• INCUDOMALLEAR JOINT: Head of malleus (hammer) + Body of incus (anvil)
• INCUDOSTAPEDIAL JOINT: Lenticular process of incus + Head of the stapes (stirrup)
• SYNDESMOSIS TYMPANOSTAPEDIA: Base of the stapes + vestibular window
o Ligaments of the Auditory Ossicles function to hold the ossicles in place and to limit their movement.
Short Lateral Ligament between the tympanic process of the malleus and the tympanic notch.
Dorsal Ligament joins the head of the malleus to the roof of the epitympanic recess.
Rostral Ligament connects the rostral process of the malleus to the osseous tympanic ring.
Dorsal Ligament the body of the incus to the roof of the epitympanic recess.
Caudal Ligament the short crus of the incus to the fossa incudis.
Annular Ligament the base of the stapes to the margin of the vestibular window.

JOINTS OF THE HYOID APPARATUS

• Between the bones of the hyoid apparatus
• Thyrohyoid + Thyroid cartilage
• Temporohyoid joint (syndesmosis)
SUTURES OF THE SKULL

• The immovable, fibrous joints between the skull bones.
• The name of each bone is followed by the names of the sutures in which it participates.
JOINTS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

1. Atlanto-occipital Joint
2. Atlanto-axial Joint
3. Joints between the articular processes of vertebrae
ATLANTO-OCCIPITAL JOINT
• Yes Joint
• Occipital condyles of the skull and the concavities of the atlas
• Condylar (Ginglymus function)
o Dorsal atlanto-occipital membrane between the dorsal edge of the foramen magnum and the cranial border of
the dorsal arch of the atlas.
o Ventral atlanto-occipital membrane between the ventral edge of the foramen magnum and the ventral arch of
the atlas.
o Lateral atlanto-occipital ligament from the lateral part of the dorsal arch of the atlas to the jugular process of
the occipital bone (cranioventrolateral course).
o Another small ligament on each side of the inner surface of the lateral part of the ventral arch of the atlas to the
lateral part of the foramen magnum.
ATLANTO-AXIAL JOINT
• No Joint
• Pivot joint (the head and the atlas rotate around a longitudinal axis)
o Atlantoaxial membrane the fibrous layer of the joint capsule from right to left dorsally between the dorsal
arch of the atlas and the neural arch of the axis.
o Apical ligament of the dens leaves the apex of the dens by three pillars.
Middle- goes straight forward to the ventral part of the foramen magnum.
Lateral (2)- are wider and heavier; they diverge from each other and attach to the occipital bone medial
to the caudal parts of the occipital condyles.
o Transverse Atlantal Ligament a strong ligament connecting one side of the ventral arch of the atlas-> crossing
dorsal to the dens and functions to hold this process against the ventral arch of the atlas.
JOINTS OF THE ARTICULAR PROCESSES OF VERTEBRAE

• The synovial articulations between the caudal and cranial articular processes of adjacent vertebrae.
Long Ligaments of the Vertebral Column

• Nuchal Ligament (Lig. Nuchae, ligament of the nape) the yellow-elastic connective tissue connecting the heavy
spinous process of the axis with the the spinous process of the first thoracic vertebra. It is laterally compressed,
PAIRED band lying between the medial surfaces of muscles semispinalis capitis. It helps support the head.
• Supraspinous Ligament the heavy band of connective tissue from the top of spinous process of the first thoracic
vertebra to the third coccygeal vertebra. It prevents abnormal separation of the vertebral spines during flexion of the
vertebral column.
• Ventral Longitudinal Ligament the tendinous band lying on the ventral surfaces of the bodies of the vertebrae from
the axis to the sacrum. It prevents OVER-EXTENSION of the spine.
• Dorsal Longitudinal Ligament the tendinous band on the dorsal surfaces (floor) of the bodies of vertebrae from the
axis to the sacrum. It prevents HYPERFLEXION of the spine.
Short Ligaments of the Vertebral column

• Intervertebral Discs the layers of fibrocartilage between the bodies of adjacent vertebral bodies (except between C1
and C2), each consisting of an OUTER fibrous ring and INNER pulpy nucleus. The thickness is greatest in the cervical
and lumbar region; the thinnest are in the caudal region.
• Anulus fibrosus (Fibrous ring) consists of bands of parallel fibers connecting adjacent vertebral bodies. It is thin
dorsally and thick ventrally. They provide a means for the transmission of stresses and strains which are required by all
lateral and upward movements.
• Nucleus Pulposus (Pulpy nucleus) the gelatinous remnant of the notochord surrounded by the fibrous ring. It
serves to absorb shock.
• Interspinous Ligament the fibers connecting the spines of adjacent vertebrae along the entire length of the vertebral
column.
• Intertransverse Ligaments consist of bundles of fibers which unites the craniolaterally directed transverse
processes of the lumbar vertebrae.
• Interarcuate Ligaments or Yellow Ligaments the loose, elastic ligaments filling the dorsal spaces between the
arches of adjacent vertebrae.
Clinical:
o Rupture of an Intervertebral Disc the rupture or degeneration of the fibrous ring allowing the pulpy nucleus to
bulge or “explode” out of the disc. The rupture happens dorsally into the vertebral canal.
JOINTS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE RIBS

1. Costovertebral Joints
2. Sternocostal Joints
3. Costochondral Joints
COSTOVERTEBRAL JOINTS
• Articulations formed by the capitulum (head) of each rib with the costal foveae of the appropriate vertebrae and each
tuberculum with the transverse process of the corresponding vertebra.
o Joint capsules are thin-walled synovial sacs completely surrounding each joint and associated with the four
ligaments .
o Radiate Ligament of the Head small ligamentous band which passess from the head of the rib to the lateral
part of the disc.
o Intercapital Ligament it connects the heads of a pair of opposite ribs. It crosses through the intervertebral
foramen and over the dorsal part of the vertebral disc. It functions to holds the heads of the opposite ribs tightly
against their articular sockets and to prevent excessive cranial and caudal movements of the ribs.
o Ligament of the Tubercle (Costotransverse Ligament) the strongest single ligament uniting the rib to the
vertebra; from the articular capsule of the tubercle to the transverse process of the vertebra corresponding to the
rib.
o Ligament of the Neck consists of collagenous bundles extending from the neck of the rib to the ventral
surface of the transverse process and the adjacent lateral surface of the body of the vertebra.
STERNOCOSTAL JOINTS
• Synovial articulations between the first eight costal cartilages and the sternum.
• Pivot Type
• Each has a joint capsule and ligaments
o Dorsal and Ventral Sternocostal Radiate Ligaments from the costal cartilages to the intersternebral
fibrocartilages.
o Stermal Membrane band of thickened periosteum covering the ventral and dorsal surfaces of the sternum.
o Costoxiphoid Ligaments two flat cords originating on the eight costal cartilageto the caudal half of the
xiphoid process.
COSTOCHONDRAL JUNCTION
• Fibrous (syndesmosis) joint between the ribs and the costal cartilages.
• No synovial cavities.
More of Arthrology:
INTRACAPSULAR (Intraarticular) Ligaments

1. Ligament of the head of the femur
2. Cranial and caudal cruciate ligament of the stifle joint
3. Ligament of the dens (axis)
4. Dorsal longitudinal ligament (vertebrae)
5. Conjugal ligament (thoracic vertebrae except the first)
EXTRACAPSULAR (Periarticular) Ligaments
1. Ligamentum nuchae
2. Medial and lateral collateral ligaments (elbow, carpus, metacarpophalangeal and femorotibial)
Points to Remember:
1. Annular ligament of the radius is found in the _____________ joint.
2. Two structures composing the carpal canal.
3. What is a palmar carpal fibrocartilage?
4. Carpal vaLgus and varus.
5. Structures passing through the carpal and tarsal canal.
6. Dorsal ligaments in the distal interphalangeal joint (DIP) functions to _________________________.
7. The sacrotuberous ligament of the sacroiliac joint.
8. Ligament of the head of the femur or the round ligament or capital ligament.
9. The menisci and the ligaments of the stifle joint (meniscal, collateral, cruciate and patellar).
10. The function of the parapatellar fibrocartilage.
11. The nuchal ligament.
12. The costovertebral joints (head/capitulum of the rib + costal foveae of the vertebrae; tubercle of the rib + costal
foveae of the transverse process of the corresponding vertebrae).


Module 3 Anatomy I Arthrology

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G e n e r a l V e t e r i n a r y M a c r o s c o p i c A n a t o m y : A r t h r o l o g y | 23

• Joints can be classified by several criteria:

• NUMBER OF BONES ARTICULATING

KHAN LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM

o Synovial joints may be classified in several ways:

o Movements of Synovial Joints

JOINTS OF THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Thoracic Limb Pelvic Limb

JOINTS OF THE AXIAL SKELETON

Skull Vertebrae Ribs and Sternum

KHAN LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM

REVIEW OF CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS:

Ligament- connects BONE to _______________.

Synovial Bursa (Partial) versus Synovial Sheath (Complete)

REDUCES FRICTION; REDUCES INJURY

TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINT

1. Plane (Gliding) Joint

Thoracic • Carpometacarpal Joint

Thoracic Limb • Shoulder Joint

Thoracic Limb • Humeroulnar Joint

4. Pivot (Trochoid) Joint

Thoracic Limb • Proximal Radioulnar Joint

Thoracic Limb • Middle Carpal Joint

Thoracic Limb • Antebrachiocarpal Joint

Thoracic Limb • Proximal and Distal Interphalangeal

KHAN LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM

JOINTS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE THORACIC LIMB

KHAN LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM

2. Middle carpal joint (proximal + distal rows of carpal bones)

JOINTS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE THORACIC LIMB

KHAN LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM

MENISCI and LIGAMENTS OF THE STIFLE (KNEE) JOINT IN THE DOG

2. Intertarsal (Proximal & Distal) Joint

The INTERMETATARSAL, METATARSOPHALANGEAL and INTERPHALANGEAL Joints lll

JOINTS OF THE SKULL

JOINTS OF THE AUDITORY OSSICLES

KHAN LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM

JOINTS OF THE HYOID APPARATUS

SUTURES OF THE SKULL

JOINTS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

JOINTS OF THE ARTICULAR PROCESSES OF VERTEBRAE

Long Ligaments of the Vertebral Column

Short Ligaments of the Vertebral column

JOINTS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE RIBS

INTRACAPSULAR (Intraarticular) Ligaments

KHAN LAMANERO JUNATAS, DVM

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