surfaces and more dense irregular
JOINTS connective tissue than in a suture.
are classified structurally, based on their
anatomical characteristics, and
functionally, based on the type of
movement they permit.
Structural classification is based on two
criteria:
1. the presence or absence of a space
between the articulating bones,
called a synovial cavity,
2. the type of connective tissue that
binds the bones together.
Structurally, joints are classified as one of
the following types:
Fibrous joints - there is no synovial
cavity, and the bones are held together by
dense irregular connective tissue that is
rich in collagen fibres.
3 types of fibrous joints:
Suture
a fibrous joint composed of a thin layer
of dense irregular connective tissue.
joints that form as the numerous bones
of the skull come in contact during
development.
immovable or slightly movable.
Ex. Suture in skull
Syndesmosis
a fibrous joint in which there is a greater
distance between the articulating
The dense irregular connective tissue is
typically arranged as a bundle
(ligament), allowing the joint to permit
limited movement. It permits slight
movement (amphiarthrosis).
Ex. Gomphosis (Articulations between the
roots of the teeth and their sockets (alveoli) in
the maxillae and mandible)
3. Interosseous membranes
a substantial sheet of dense irregular
connective tissue that binds
neighboring long bones and permits
slight movement (amphiarthrosis).
Two interosseous membrane in the
body. One occurs between the radius
and ulna in the forearm and the other
occurs between the tibia and fibula in
the leg.
Cartilaginous joints - there is no synovial
cavity, and the bones are held together by
cartilage.
2 types of Cartilaginous Joints:
1. Synchondroses
a cartilaginous joint in which the
connecting material is hyaline
cartilage.
Functionally, a synchondrosis is an
immovable joint (synarthrosis).
Ex. Epiphyseal growth plate that connects
the epiphysis to diaphysis
1. Symphysis
 cartilaginous joint in which the ends
of the articulating bones are covered with
hyaline cartilage, but a broad, flat disc of
fibrocartilage connects the bones.
Ex. Pubic Symphysis between the anterior
surfaces of the hip bones.
Synovial joints
The bones forming the joint have a
synovial cavity and are united by the dense
irregular connective tissue of an articular
capsule, and often by accessory ligaments.
Articular cartilage on ends of long
bones and a synovial cavity between
articulating bones surrounded by accessory
ligaments; freely movable.
The unique characteristic of a
synovial joint is the presence of a space
called a synovial cavity or joint cavity
between the articulating bones.
All synovial joints are classified
functionally as freely movable (diarthroses)
The bones at a synovial joint are
covered by a layer of hyaline cartilage called
articular cartilage.
Articular cartilage reduces friction
between bones in the joint during
movement and helps to absorb shock.
Synovial joints are divided into six
categories based on type of movement:
Plane Joints
The articulating surfaces of bones in
a plane joint, also called a planar
joint, are flat or slightly curved.
It permits back-and-forth and
side-to-side movements between
the flat surfaces of bones, but they
may also rotate against one another.
Examples:
1. Intercarpal joints (between carpal bones
at the wrist.
2. Intertarsal joints (between tarsal bones
at the ankle)
3. Sternoclavicular joints (between the
manubrium of the sternum and the
clavicle)
4. Acromioclavicular joints (between the
acromion of the scapula and the clavicle)
5. Sternocostal joints (between the
sternum and ends of the costal cartilages
at the tips of the second through seventh
pairs of ribs)
6. Vertebrocostal joints (between the
heads and tubercles of ribs and bodies
and transverse processes of thoracic
vertebrae).
Pivot joints
In a pivot joint, or trochoid joint, the
rounded or pointed surface of one
bone articulates with a ring formed
partly by another bone and partly by
a ligament
 Uniaxial because it allows rotation only
around its own longitudinal axis.
Examples:
1. Atlanto-axial joint, in which the atlas rotates
around the axis and permits the head to turn
from side-to-side as when you shake your head
‘no’
2. Radioulnar joints that enable the palms to
turn anteriorly and posteriorly as the head of the
radius pivots around its long axis in the radial
notch of the ulna.
Condyloid joints
In a condyloid joint or ellipsoidal joint,
the convex oval-shaped projection of
one bone fits into the oval-shaped
depression of another bone.
Biaxial because the movement it
permits is around two axes
(flexion–extension and
abduction–adduction), plus limited
circumduction (remember that
circumduction is not an isolated
movement).
Examples:
1. Radiocarpal (wrist)
2. Metacarpophalangeal joints (between the
metacarpals and proximal phalanges) of the
second through fifth digits.
Saddle joints
In a saddle joint or sellar joint, the
articular surface of one bone is
saddle-shaped, and the articular
surface of the other bone fits into the
‘saddle’ as a sitting rider would
sit.
The movements at a saddle joint are
the same as those at a condyloid
joint: biaxial (flexion–extension
and abduction–adduction) plus
limited circumduction.
Example:
1. Carpometacarpal joint between the
trapezium of the carpus and metacarpal of
the thumb.
Ball-and-socket joints
A ball-and-socket joint or spheroid
joint consists of the ball-like surface
of one bone fitting into a cuplike
depression of another bone.
Triaxial (multiaxial), permitting
movements around three axes
(flexion–extension,
abduction–adduction, and rotation).
Examples
1. The shoulder and hip joints. At the
shoulder joint, the head of the
humerus fits into the glenoid cavity
of the scapula. At the hip joint, the
head of the femur fits into the
acetabulum of the hip (coxal) bone.
Functional classification of joints relates to
the degree of movement they permit.
Functionally, joints are classified as one of the
following types:
Synarthrosis - an immovable joint. The plural
is synarthroses.
Amphiarthrosis - A slightly movable joint. The
plural is amphiarthroses.
Diarthrosis - A freely movable joint. The plural
is diarthroses. All diarthroses are synovial
joints. They have a variety of shapes and permit
several different types of movements.
Synovial Fluid
The synovial membrane secretes
synovial fluid, a viscous, clear or pale yellow
fluid named for its similarity in appearance and
consistency to uncooked egg white.
Synovial fluid consists of hyaluronic acid
secreted by synovial cells in the synovial
membrane and interstitial fluid filtered from
blood plasma
Its functions include reducing friction by
lubricating the joint, absorbing shocks, and
supplying oxygen and nutrients to and removing
carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes from the
chondrocytes within articular cartilage.
Synovial fluid also contains phagocytic
cells that remove microbes and the debris that
results from normal wear and tear in the joint.
When a synovial joint is immobile for a
time, the fluid becomes quite viscous (gel-like),
but as joint movement increases, the fluid
becomes less viscous
One of the benefits of warming up
before exercise is that it stimulates the
production and secretion of synovial fluid;
within limits, more fluid means less stress on
the joints during exercise.
Hinge joints
The convex surface of one bone fits
into the concave surface of another bone
It produces an angular,
opening-and-closing motion like that of a
hinged door. In most joint movements, one
bone remains in a fixed position while the
other moves around an axis.
Uniaxial (monaxial) because it allows
motion around a single axis.
It only permits flexion and extension.
Examples of hinge joints are the knee
(actually a modified hinge joint, which
will be described later), elbow, ankle,
and interphalangeal joints (between
the phalanges of the fingers and
toes).
ACCESSORY LIGAMENTS
Synovial joints contain accessory ligaments
called extracapsular ligaments and
intracapsular ligaments.
Extracapsular ligaments - lie outside the
articular capsule.
Intracapsular ligaments - within the
articular capsule.
Location of Joints
Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) - between
the condyle of the mandible and mandibular
fossa and articular tubercle of the temporal
bone.
Combined hinge and plane joint
formed by the condylar process of the
mandible and the mandibular fossa and
articular tubercle of the temporal bone. The
temporomandibular joint is the only freely
movable joint between skull bones (with the
exception of the ear ossicles); all other skull
joints are sutures and therefore immovable or
slightly movable.

Shoulder (humeroscapular or
glenohumeral) joint is between the head of
the humerus and glenoid cavity of the
scapula.

A ball-and-socket joint formed by the

head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of
the scapula. It is also referred to as the
humeroscapular or glenohumeral joint.

Elbow joint is between the trochlea of the

humerus, the trochlear notch of the ulna, and
the head of the radius.

A hinge joint formed by the trochlea

and capitulum of the humerus, the trochlear
notch of the ulna, and the head of the radius.

Hip (coxal) joint is between the head of the

femur and acetabulum of the hip bone.

A ball-and-socket joint formed by the

head of the femur and the acetabulum of the
hip bone.

Knee (tibiofemoral) joint is between the

patella and patellar surface of the femur; the
lateral condyle of the femur, the lateral
meniscus, and the lateral condyle of the tibia;
and the medial condyle of the femur, the
medial meniscus, and the medial condyle of
the tibia.

The largest and most complex joint of the

body. It is a modified hinge joint (because its
primary movement is a uniaxial hinge
movement) that consists of three joints
within a single synovial cavity.