Aircraft engine

An aircraft engine, often referred to as an

aero engine, is the power component of an
aircraft propulsion system. Most aircraft
engines are either piston engines or gas
turbines, although in recent years many
small UAVs have used electric motors.
A Rolls-Royce Merlin installed in a preserved Avro York

Manufacturing industry
In commercial aviation the major Western
manufacturers of turbofan engines are
Pratt & Whitney (a subsidiary of Raytheon
Technologies), General Electric, Rolls-
Royce, and CFM International (a joint
venture of Safran Aircraft Engines and
General Electric).[1] Russian
manufacturers include the United Engine
Corporation, Aviadvigatel and Klimov.
Aeroengine Corporation of China was
formed in 2016 with the merger of several
smaller companies.[1]

The largest manufacturer of turboprop

engines for general aviation is Pratt &
Whitney.[2] General Electric announced in
2015 entrance into the market.[2]

Development history

Wright vertical 4-cylinder engine

1848: John Stringfellow made a steam
engine for a 10-foot wingspan model
aircraft which achieved the first powered
flight, albeit with negligible payload.
1903: Charlie Taylor built an inline
engine, mostly of aluminum, for the
Wright Flyer (12 horsepower).
1903: Manly-Balzer engine sets
standards for later radial engines.[3]
1906: Léon Levavasseur produces a
successful water-cooled V8 engine for
aircraft use.
1908: René Lorin patents a design for
the ramjet engine.
1908: Louis Seguin designed the Gnome
Omega, the world's first rotary engine to
be produced in quantity. In 1909 a
Gnome powered Farman III aircraft won
the prize for the greatest non-stop
distance flown at the Reims Grande
Semaine d'Aviation setting a world
record for endurance of 180 kilometres
(110 mi).
1910: Coandă-1910, an unsuccessful
ducted fan aircraft exhibited at Paris
Aero Salon, powered by a piston engine.
The aircraft never flew, but a patent was
filed for routing exhaust gases into the
duct to augment thrust.[4][5][6][7]
1914: Auguste Rateau suggests using
exhaust-powered compressor – a
turbocharger – to improve high-altitude
performance;[3] not accepted after the
tests[8]
1917-18 - The Idflieg-numbered R.30/16
example of the Imperial German
Luftstreitkräfte's Zeppelin-Staaken R.VI
heavy bomber becomes the earliest
known supercharger-equipped aircraft to
fly, with a Mercedes D.II straight-six
engine in the central fuselage driving a
Brown-Boveri mechanical supercharger
for the R.30/16's four Mercedes D.IVa
engines.
1918: Sanford Alexander Moss picks up
Rateau's idea and creates the first
successful turbocharger[3][9]
1926: Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar IV (S),
the first series-produced supercharged
engine for aircraft use;[10][nb 1] two-row
radial with a gear-driven centrifugal
supercharger.
1930: Frank Whittle submitted his first
patent for a turbojet engine.
June 1939: Heinkel He 176 is the first
successful aircraft to fly powered solely
by a liquid-fueled rocket engine.
August 1939: Heinkel HeS 3 turbojet
propels the pioneering German Heinkel
He 178 aircraft.
1940: Jendrassik Cs-1, the world's first
run of a turboprop engine. It is not put
into service.
1943 Daimler-Benz DB 670, first
turbofan runs
1944: Messerschmitt Me 163B Komet,
the world's first rocket-propelled combat
aircraft deployed.
1945: First turboprop-powered aircraft
flies, a modified Gloster Meteor with two
Rolls-Royce Trent engines.
1947: Bell X-1 rocket-propelled aircraft
exceeds the speed of sound.
1948: 100 shp 782, the first turboshaft
engine to be applied to aircraft use; in
1950 used to develop the larger 280 shp
(210 kW) Turbomeca Artouste.
1949: Leduc 010, the world's first ramjet-
powered aircraft flight.
1950: Rolls-Royce Conway, the world's
first production turbofan, enters service.
1968: General Electric TF39 high bypass
turbofan enters service delivering
greater thrust and much better
efficiency.
2002: HyShot scramjet flew in dive.
2004: NASA X-43, the first scramjet to
maintain altitude.
 2020: Pipistrel E-811 is the first electric
aircraft engine to be awarded a type
certificate by EASA. It powers the
Pipistrel Velis Electro, the first fully
electric EASA type-certified
aeroplane.[11]

Shaft engines

Ranger L-440 air-cooled, six-cylinder, inverted, in-line

engine used in Fairchild PT-19

Reciprocating (piston) engines …

In-line engine …

In this entry, for clarity, the term "inline

engine" refers only to engines with a single
row of cylinders, as used in automotive
language, but in aviation terms, the phrase
"inline engine" also covers V-type and
opposed engines (as described below),
and is not limited to engines with a single
row of cylinders. This is typically to
differentiate them from radial engines. A
straight engine typically has an even
number of cylinders, but there are
instances of three- and five-cylinder
engines. The greatest advantage of an
inline engine is that it allows the aircraft to
be designed with a low frontal area to
minimize drag. If the engine crankshaft is
located above the cylinders, it is called an
inverted inline engine: this allows the
propeller to be mounted high up to
increase ground clearance, enabling
shorter landing gear. The disadvantages of
an inline engine include a poor power-to-
weight ratio, because the crankcase and
crankshaft are long and thus heavy. An in-
line engine may be either air-cooled or
liquid-cooled, but liquid-cooling is more
common because it is difficult to get
enough air-flow to cool the rear cylinders
directly. Inline engines were common in
early aircraft; one was used in the Wright
Flyer, the aircraft that made the first
controlled powered flight. However, the
inherent disadvantages of the design soon
became apparent, and the inline design
was abandoned, becoming a rarity in
modern aviation.

For other configurations of aviation inline

engine, such as X-engines, U-engines, H-
engines, etc., see Inline engine
(aeronautics).

V-type engine …
A Rolls-Royce Merlin V-12 Engine

Cylinders in this engine are arranged in

two in-line banks, typically tilted 60–90
degrees apart from each other and driving
a common crankshaft. The vast majority
of V engines are water-cooled. The V
design provides a higher power-to-weight
ratio than an inline engine, while still
providing a small frontal area. Perhaps the
most famous example of this design is the
legendary Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, a 27-
litre (1649 in3) 60° V12 engine used in,
among others, the Spitfires that played a
major role in the Battle of Britain.
Horizontally opposed engine …

A ULPower UL260i horizontally opposed air-cooled

aero engine

A horizontally opposed engine, also called

a flat or boxer engine, has two banks of
cylinders on opposite sides of a centrally
located crankcase. The engine is either air-
cooled or liquid-cooled, but air-cooled
versions predominate. Opposed engines
are mounted with the crankshaft
horizontal in airplanes, but may be
mounted with the crankshaft vertical in
helicopters. Due to the cylinder layout,
reciprocating forces tend to cancel,
resulting in a smooth running engine.
Opposed-type engines have high power-to-
weight ratios because they have a
comparatively small, lightweight
crankcase. In addition, the compact
cylinder arrangement reduces the engine's
frontal area and allows a streamlined
installation that minimizes aerodynamic
drag. These engines always have an even
number of cylinders, since a cylinder on
one side of the crankcase “opposes” a
cylinder on the other side.
Opposed, air-cooled four- and six-cylinder
piston engines are by far the most
common engines used in small general
aviation aircraft requiring up to 400
horsepower (300 kW) per engine. Aircraft
that require more than 400 horsepower
(300 kW) per engine tend to be powered by
turbine engines.

H configuration engine …

An H configuration engine is essentially a

pair of horizontally opposed engines
placed together, with the two crankshafts
geared together.

Radial engine …
A Pratt & Whitney R-2800 engine

This type of engine has one or more rows

of cylinders arranged around a centrally
located crankcase. Each row generally has
an odd number of cylinders to produce
smooth operation. A radial engine has only
one crank throw per row and a relatively
small crankcase, resulting in a favorable
power-to-weight ratio. Because the
cylinder arrangement exposes a large
amount of the engine's heat-radiating
surfaces to the air and tends to cancel
reciprocating forces, radials tend to cool
evenly and run smoothly. The lower
cylinders, which are under the crankcase,
may collect oil when the engine has been
stopped for an extended period. If this oil
is not cleared from the cylinders prior to
starting the engine, serious damage due to
hydrostatic lock may occur.

Most radial engines have the cylinders

arranged evenly around the crankshaft,
although some early engines, sometimes
called semi-radials or fan configuration
engines, had an uneven arrangement. The
best known engine of this type is the
Anzani engine, which was fitted to the
Bleriot XI used for the first flight across the
English Channel in 1909. This arrangement
had the drawback of needing a heavy
counterbalance for the crankshaft, but was
used to avoid the spark plugs oiling up.

In military aircraft designs, the large frontal

area of the engine acted as an extra layer
of armor for the pilot. Also air-cooled
engines, without vulnerable radiators, are
slightly less prone to battle damage, and
on occasion would continue running even
with one or more cylinders shot away.
However, the large frontal area also
resulted in an aircraft with an
aerodynamically inefficient increased
frontal area.

Rotary engine …

Le Rhone 9C rotary aircraft engine

Rotary engines have the cylinders in a
circle around the crankcase, as in a radial
engine, (see above), but the crankshaft is
fixed to the airframe and the propeller is
fixed to the engine case, so that the
crankcase and cylinders rotate. The
advantage of this arrangement is that a
satisfactory flow of cooling air is
maintained even at low airspeeds,
retaining the weight advantage and
simplicity of a conventional air-cooled
engine without one of their major
drawbacks. The first practical rotary
engine was the Gnome Omega designed
by the Seguin brothers and first flown in
1909. Its relative reliability and good
power to weight ratio changed aviation
dramatically. [12] Before the first World War
most speed records were gained using
Gnome-engined aircraft, and in the early
years of the war rotary engines were
dominant in aircraft types for which speed
and agility were paramount. To increase
power, engines with two rows of cylinders
were built.

However, the gyroscopic effects of the

heavy rotating engine produced handling
problems in aircraft and the engines also
consumed large amounts of oil since they
used total loss lubrication, the oil being
mixed with the fuel and ejected with the
exhaust gases. Castor oil was used for
lubrication, since it is not soluble in petrol,
and the resultant fumes were nauseating
to the pilots. Engine designers had always
been aware of the many limitations of the
rotary engine so when the static style
engines became more reliable and gave
better specific weights and fuel
consumption, the days of the rotary engine
were numbered.

Wankel engine …
Powerplant from a Schleicher ASH 26e self-launching
motor glider, removed from the glider and mounted on
a test stand for maintenance at the Alexander
Schleicher GmbH & Co in Poppenhausen, Germany.
Counter-clockwise from top left: propeller hub, mast
with belt guide, radiator, Wankel engine, muffler
shroud.

The Wankel is a type of rotary engine. The

Wankel engine is about one half the weight
and size of a traditional four-stroke cycle
piston engine of equal power output, and
much lower in complexity. In an aircraft
application, the power-to-weight ratio is
very important, making the Wankel engine
a good choice. Because the engine is
typically constructed with an aluminium
housing and a steel rotor, and aluminium
expands more than steel when heated, a
Wankel engine does not seize when
overheated, unlike a piston engine. This is
an important safety factor for aeronautical
use. Considerable development of these
designs started after World War II, but at
the time the aircraft industry favored the
use of turbine engines. It was believed that
turbojet or turboprop engines could power
all aircraft, from the largest to smallest
designs. The Wankel engine did not find
many applications in aircraft, but was used
by Mazda in a popular line of sports cars.
The French company Citroën had
developed Wankel powered RE-2
helicopter in 1970's.[13]

In modern times the Wankel engine has

been used in motor gliders where the
compactness, light weight, and
smoothness are crucially important.[14]

The now-defunct Staverton-based firm

MidWest designed and produced single-
and twin-rotor aero engines, the MidWest
AE series. These engines were developed
from the motor in the Norton Classic
motorcycle. The twin-rotor version was
fitted into ARV Super2s and the Rutan
Quickie. The single-rotor engine was put
into a Chevvron motor glider and into the
Schleicher ASH motor-gliders. After the
demise of MidWest, all rights were sold to
Diamond of Austria, who have since
developed a MkII version of the engine.

As a cost-effective alternative to certified

aircraft engines some Wankel engines,
removed from automobiles and converted
to aviation use, have been fitted in
homebuilt experimental aircraft. Mazda
units with outputs ranging from 100
horsepower (75 kW) to 300 horsepower
(220 kW) can be a fraction of the cost of
traditional engines. Such conversions first
took place in the early 1970s; and as of 10
December 2006 the National
Transportation Safety Board has only
seven reports of incidents involving
aircraft with Mazda engines, and none of
these is of a failure due to design or
manufacturing flaws.

Combustion cycles …

The commonest combustion cycle for

aero engines is the four-stroke with spark
ignition. Two-stroke spark ignition has also
been used for small engines, while the
compression-ignition Diesel engine is
seldom used.

Starting in the 1930s attempts were made

to produce a practical Aircraft diesel
engine. In general, Diesel engines are more
reliable and much better suited to running
for long periods of time at medium power
settings. The lightweight alloys of the
1930s were not up to the task of handling
the much higher compression ratios of
diesel engines, so they generally had poor
power-to-weight ratios and were
uncommon for that reason, although the
Clerget 14F Diesel radial engine (1939)
has the same power to weight ratio as a
gasoline radial. Improvements in Diesel
technology in automobiles (leading to
much better power-weight ratios), the
Diesel's much better fuel efficiency and the
high relative taxation of AVGAS compared
to Jet A1 in Europe have all seen a revival
of interest in the use of diesels for aircraft.
Thielert Aircraft Engines converted
Mercedes Diesel automotive engines,
certified them for aircraft use, and became
an OEM provider to Diamond Aviation for
their light twin. Financial problems have
plagued Thielert, so Diamond's affiliate —
Austro Engine — developed the new AE300
turbodiesel, also based on a Mercedes
engine.[15] Competing new Diesel engines
may bring fuel efficiency and lead-free
emissions to small aircraft, representing
the biggest change in light aircraft engines
in decades.

Power turbines …

Turboprop …

Cutaway view of a Garrett TPE-331 turboprop engine

showing the gearbox at the front of the engine
While military fighters require very high
speeds, many civil airplanes do not. Yet,
civil aircraft designers wanted to benefit
from the high power and low maintenance
that a gas turbine engine offered. Thus
was born the idea to mate a turbine engine
to a traditional propeller. Because gas
turbines optimally spin at high speed, a
turboprop features a gearbox to lower the
speed of the shaft so that the propeller
tips don't reach supersonic speeds. Often
the turbines that drive the propeller are
separate from the rest of the rotating
components so that they can rotate at
their own best speed (referred to as a free-
turbine engine). A turboprop is very
efficient when operated within the realm of
cruise speeds it was designed for, which is
typically 200 to 400 mph (320 to
640 km/h).

Turboshaft …

An Allison Model 250 turboshaft engine common to

many types of helicopters

Turboshaft engines are used primarily for

helicopters and auxiliary power units. A
turboshaft engine is similar to a turboprop
in principle, but in a turboprop the propeller
is supported by the engine and the engine
is bolted to the airframe: in a turboshaft,
the engine does not provide any direct
physical support to the helicopter's rotors.
The rotor is connected to a transmission
which is bolted to the airframe, and the
turboshaft engine drives the transmission.
The distinction is seen by some as slim, as
in some cases aircraft companies make
both turboprop and turboshaft engines
based on the same design.

Electric power …
A number of electrically powered aircraft,
such as the QinetiQ Zephyr, have been
designed since the 1960s.[16][17] Some are
used as military drones.[18] In France in
late 2007, a conventional light aircraft
powered by an 18 kW electric motor using
lithium polymer batteries was flown,
covering more than 50 kilometers (31 mi),
the first electric airplane to receive a
certificate of airworthiness.[16]

On 18 May 2020, the Pipistrel E-811 was

the first electric aircraft engine to be
awarded a type certificate by EASA for use
in general aviation. The E-811 powers the
Pipistrel Velis Electro.[19][11]
Limited experiments with solar electric
propulsion have been performed, notably
the manned Solar Challenger and Solar
Impulse and the unmanned NASA
Pathfinder aircraft.

Many big companies, such as Siemens,

are developing high performance electric
engines for aircraft use, also, SAE shows
new developments in elements as pure
Copper core electric motors with a better
efficiency. A hybrid system as emergency
back-up and for added power in take-off is
offered for sale by Axter Aerospace,
Madrid, Spain. [2]
Small multicopter UAVs are almost always
powered by electric motors.

Reaction engines
Reaction engines generate the thrust to
propel an aircraft by ejecting the exhaust
gases at high velocity from the engine, the
resultant reaction of forces driving the
aircraft forwards. The most common
reaction propulsion engines flown are
turbojets, turbofans and rockets. Other
types such as pulsejets, ramjets,
scramjets and pulse detonation engines
have also flown. In jet engines the oxygen
necessary for fuel combustion comes
from the air, while rockets carry oxygen in
some form as part of the fuel load,
permitting their use in space.

Jet turbines …

Turbojet …

A General Electric J85-GE-17A turbojet engine. This

cutaway clearly shows the 8 stages of axial
compressor at the front (left side of the picture), the
combustion chambers in the middle, and the two
stages of turbines at the rear of the engine.
A turbojet is a type of gas turbine engine
that was originally developed for military
fighters during World War II. A turbojet is
the simplest of all aircraft gas turbines. It
consists of a compressor to draw air in
and compress it, a combustion section
where fuel is added and ignited, one or
more turbines that extract power from the
expanding exhaust gases to drive the
compressor, and an exhaust nozzle that
accelerates the exhaust gases out the
back of the engine to create thrust. When
turbojets were introduced, the top speed
of fighter aircraft equipped with them was
at least 100 miles per hour faster than
competing piston-driven aircraft. In the
years after the war, the drawbacks of the
turbojet gradually became apparent. Below
about Mach 2, turbojets are very fuel
inefficient and create tremendous
amounts of noise. Early designs also
respond very slowly to power changes, a
fact that killed many experienced pilots
when they attempted the transition to jets.
These drawbacks eventually led to the
downfall of the pure turbojet, and only a
handful of types are still in production. The
last airliner that used turbojets was the
Concorde, whose Mach 2 airspeed
permitted the engine to be highly efficient.

Turbofan …
A cutaway of a CFM56-3 turbofan engine

A turbofan engine is much the same as a

turbojet, but with an enlarged fan at the
front that provides thrust in much the
same way as a ducted propeller, resulting
in improved fuel efficiency. Though the fan
creates thrust like a propeller, the
surrounding duct frees it from many of the
restrictions that limit propeller
performance. This operation is a more
efficient way to provide thrust than simply
using the jet nozzle alone, and turbofans
are more efficient than propellers in the
transsonic range of aircraft speeds and
can operate in the supersonic realm. A
turbofan typically has extra turbine stages
to turn the fan. Turbofans were among the
first engines to use multiple spools—
concentric shafts that are free to rotate at
their own speed—to let the engine react
more quickly to changing power
requirements. Turbofans are coarsely split
into low-bypass and high-bypass
categories. Bypass air flows through the
fan, but around the jet core, not mixing
with fuel and burning. The ratio of this air
to the amount of air flowing through the
engine core is the bypass ratio. Low-
bypass engines are preferred for military
applications such as fighters due to high
thrust-to-weight ratio, while high-bypass
engines are preferred for civil use for good
fuel efficiency and low noise. High-bypass
turbofans are usually most efficient when
the aircraft is traveling at 500 to 550 miles
per hour (800 to 885 km/h), the cruise
speed of most large airliners. Low-bypass
turbofans can reach supersonic speeds,
though normally only when fitted with
afterburners.

Pulse jets …
Pulse jets are mechanically simple devices
that—in a repeating cycle—draw air
through a no-return valve at the front of
the engine into a combustion chamber and
ignite it. The combustion forces the
exhaust gases out the back of the engine.
It produces power as a series of pulses
rather than as a steady output, hence the
name. The only application of this type of
engine was the German unmanned V1
flying bomb of World War II. Though the
same engines were also used
experimentally for ersatz fighter aircraft,
the extremely loud noise generated by the
engines caused mechanical damage to
the airframe that was sufficient to make
the idea unworkable.

Rocket …

An XLR99

A few aircraft have used rocket engines for

main thrust or attitude control, notably the
Bell X-1 and North American X-15. Rocket
engines are not used for most aircraft as
the energy and propellant efficiency is very
poor, but have been employed for short
bursts of speed and takeoff. Where
fuel/propellant efficiency is of lesser
concern, rocket engines can be useful
because they produce very large amounts
of thrust and weigh very little.

Precooled jet engines …

For very high supersonic/low hypersonic

flight speeds, inserting a cooling system
into the air duct of a hydrogen jet engine
permits greater fuel injection at high speed
and obviates the need for the duct to be
made of refractory or actively cooled
materials. This greatly improves the
thrust/weight ratio of the engine at high
speed.

It is thought that this design of engine

could permit sufficient performance for
antipodal flight at Mach 5, or even permit a
single stage to orbit vehicle to be practical.
The hybrid air-breathing SABRE rocket
engine is a pre-cooled engine under
development.

Piston-turbofan hybrid …

At the April 2018 ILA Berlin Air Show,

Munich-based research institute
de:Bauhaus Luftfahrt presented a high-
efficiency composite cycle engine for
2050, combining a geared turbofan with a
piston engine core. The 2.87 m diameter,
16-blade fan gives a 33.7 ultra-high bypass
ratio, driven by a geared low-pressure
turbine but the high-pressure compressor
drive comes from a piston-engine with two
10 piston banks without a high-pressure
turbine, increasing efficiency with non-
stationary isochoric-isobaric combustion
for higher peak pressures and
temperatures. The 11,200 lb (49.7 kN)
engine could power a 50-seat regional
jet.[20]
Its cruise TSFC would be 11.5 g/kN/s
(0.406 lb/lbf/hr) for an overall engine
efficiency of 48.2%, for a burner
temperature of 1,700 K (1,430 °C), an
overall pressure ratio of 38 and a peak
pressure of 30 MPa (300 bar).[21] Although
engine weight increases by 30%, aircraft
fuel consumption is reduced by 15%.[22]
Sponsored by the European Commission
under Framework 7 project LEMCOTEC,
Bauhaus Luftfahrt, MTU Aero Engines and
GKN Aerospace presented the concept in
2015, raising the overall engine pressure
ratio to over 100 for a 15.2% fuel burn
reduction compared to 2025 engines.[23]
Engine position numbering

The thrust levers of a three-engine Boeing 727, each

one bearing the respective engine number

On multi-engine aircraft, engine positions

are numbered from left to right from the
point of view of the pilot looking forward,
so for example on a four-engine aircraft
such as the Boeing 747, engine No. 1 is on
the left side, farthest from the fuselage,
while engine No. 3 is on the right side
nearest to the fuselage.[24]

In the case of the twin-engine English

Electric Lightning, which has two fuselage-
mounted jet engines one above the other,
engine No. 1 is below and to the front of
engine No. 2, which is above and
behind.[25]

In the Cessna 337 Skymaster, a push-pull

twin-engine airplane, engine No. 1 is the
one at the front of the fuselage, while
engine No. 2 is aft of the cabin.

Fuel
Aircraft reciprocating (piston) engines are
typically designed to run on aviation
gasoline. Avgas has a higher octane rating
than automotive gasoline to allow higher
compression ratios, power output, and
efficiency at higher altitudes. Currently the
most common Avgas is 100LL. This refers
to the octane rating (100 octane) and the
lead content (LL = low lead, relative to the
historic levels of lead in pre-regulation
Avgas).

Refineries blend Avgas with tetraethyllead

(TEL) to achieve these high octane ratings,
a practice that governments no longer
permit for gasoline intended for road
vehicles. The shrinking supply of TEL and
the possibility of environmental legislation
banning its use have made a search for
replacement fuels for general aviation
aircraft a priority for pilots’
organizations.[26]

Turbine engines and aircraft diesel

engines burn various grades of jet fuel. Jet
fuel is a relatively less volatile petroleum
derivative based on kerosene, but certified
to strict aviation standards, with additional
additives.

Model aircraft typically use nitro engines

(also known as "glow engines" due to the
use of a glow plug) powered by glow fuel,
a mixture of methanol, nitromethane, and
lubricant. Electrically powered model
airplanes[27] and helicopters are also
commercially available. Small multicopter
UAVs are almost always powered by
electricity,[28][29] but larger gasoline-
powered designs are under
development.[30][31][32]

See also
Aircraft diesel engine
Aviation safety
Engine configuration
Federal Aviation Regulations
 Hyper engine
List of aircraft engines
Model engine
United States military aircraft engine
designations

Notes
1. The world's first series-produced cars
with superchargers came earlier than
aircraft. These were Mercedes
6/25/40 hp and Mercedes
10/40/65 hp, both models introduced
in 1921 and used Roots
superchargers. G.N. Georgano, ed.
(1982). The new encyclopedia of
 motorcars 1885 to the present (3rd
ed.). New York: Dutton. pp. 415 .
ISBN 978-0-525-93254-3.

References
1. "China launches state-owned aircraft
engine maker" . CCTV America.
August 29, 2016.
2. "GE Pushes Into Turboprop Engines,
Taking on Pratt" . Wall Street Journal.
November 16, 2015.
3. Ian McNeil, ed. (1990). Encyclopedia
of the History of Technology . London:
Routledge. pp. 315 –21. ISBN 978-0-
203-19211-5.
4. Gibbs-Smith, Charles Harvard (1970).
Aviation: an historical survey from its
origins to the end of World War II .
London: Her Majesty's Stationery
Office.
5. Gibbs-Smith, Charles Harvard (1960).
The Aeroplane: An Historical Survey of
Its Origins and Development . London:
Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
. Winter, Frank H. (December 1980).
"Ducted Fan or the World's First Jet
Plane? The Coanda claim re-
examined" . The Aeronautical Journal.
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Aircraft Engines and Aircraft Engine

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The Aircraft Engine Historical Society
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of Counter-rotating and Axial Aircraft LP
Turbines
The History of Aircraft Power Plants
Briefly Reviewed : From the " 7 lb. per
h.p" Days to the " 1 lb. per h.p" of To-day
"The Quest for Power" a 1954 Flight
article by Bill Gunston
"Engine Directory" . Flight International.
24 September 1997.

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