Virtual Lab: Model Ecosystems

Worksheet

1. Organisms Within Each Trophic Level in 5 Different Global Ecosystems

Example: First Order Heterotrophs / Producers = ECE for First Order Heterotrophs
*Round all E.C.E. values to the 3nd (thousandths) decimal place.
Ecosystem Type Producers First Order Second Order Third Order
Heterotrophs Heterotrophs Heterotrophs
Deciduous Forest Organisms present: Organisms Organisms present: Organisms present:
Trees, Ferns,Berry present:chickades, Woodpecker, Snake, Hawk, Wolf
Bushes,Wild insects, Rabbits, Fox, Owl, Opossum,
Flowers,grasses Chipmunk, Deer Frog

Numbers:7,996 Numbers:4,559 Numbers:1,418 Numbers:50

Energy: 6,011 Energy:623 Energy:61 Energy:6

This level’s ECE: This level’s This level’s This level’s ECE:30,
609,2670,3456,541,720 ECE:643,2180, 386 ECE:190, 210, 310, 20
180, 111

Hot Desert Organisms present: Organisms present: Organisms present: Organisms present:
Cacti, Ocotillo, Rabbit, Herbivorous Carnivorous Lizard, Hawk, Coyotes
Brush, Sage Brush, Lizard, Insects, Tarantulas, Snake
Wild Flowers Kangroo Rats

Numbers:2,603 Numbers:831 Numbers:58 Numbers:5

Energy:200 Energy:21 Energy:2 Energy:0.19

This level’s ECE:145, This level’s This level’s ECE:18, This level’s ECE:3,
1204, 189, 864, 201 ECE:54, 740, 37 19, 21 2

Grassland Organisms present: Organisms present: Organisms present: Organisms present:

Grasses, Milk Weed, Monarch Gray Partrides, Rattle Coyotes, Hawk
Lupine Butterflies, Snake
Grasshoppers,
Buffalo,
Pronghorns,
Goldfinch
Numbers:549,106 Numbers:1,887 Numbers:30 Numbers: 5

Energy:2,000 Energy:223 Energy:19 Energy:2

This level’s ECE:980, This level’s This level’s ECE:34, This level’s ECE: 2,
326, 547, 800 ECE:64, 42, 17, 7 3
1740, 24

Antarctic Ocean Organisms present: Organisms present: Organisms present : Organisms present:
Shore Phytoplankton Squid, Carnivores Herbivores Fish, Killer Whale
Fish Penguins, Seal
Numbers:5,478,000,000 Numbers:5,504 Numbers:613
 Energy:8,006 Energy:784 Energy:86 Energy: 07

This level’s ECE:5,478 This level’s This level’s ECE: This level’s ECE: 05
Million ECE:1740, 3764 549, 42, 22

Freshwater Lake Organisms present: Organisms present: Organisms present: Organisms present:
Algae Duck, Water Bass, Crayfish, Frogs Herons
Insects, Minnows

Numbers:123,000 Numbers:2,294 Numbers:55 Numbers: 02

Energy:7,500 Energy:744 Energy:81 Energy: 08

This level’s This level’s ECE:7, This level’s ECE:23, This level’s ECE: 05
ECE:123,000 1740, 547 15, 17

Lab Questions:

2. The ultimate source of energy for most ecosystems is:

a. Carbon
b. Oxygen
c. Sunlight √
d. Water

3. Organisms that directly use energy from the sun to make their own food are
called:
a. Autotrophs √
b. Hetertrophs
c. Carnivores
d. Decomposers

4. Within an ecosystem:
a. Energy flows in one direction only and nutrients are recycled √
b. Energy is recycled and nutrients flow in one direction only
c. Energy and nutrients flow in one direction only
d. Energy and nutrients are both recycled

5. The efficiency of energy transfer from a lower trophic level to the next highest
level is roughly:
a. 1%
b. 5%
c. 10% √
d. 50%
e. 80%

6. In aquatic ecosystems, biomass is least at which trophic level?

a. Autotrophs √
 b. Herbivores
c. Carnivores

7. You are in an area where the ground is littered with what appear to be dry, dead
leaves. You are most likely in which ecosystem?
a. Deciduous forest
b. Hot Desert
c. Grassland
d. You cannot tell from this information √

8. Suggest reasons why the information represented in the pyramid of numbers of

animals of one of the ecosystems you studied may not truly represent that
ecosystem?
The data exhibiting in the pyramid having animals number in the ecosystem 1.The
study of ecosystem 1 might not accurately constitute that ecosystem, it happens due to
continual change in ecosystem. Ecosystem is varying everyday cause change in numbers
of animals. The numbers of animals would be estimated which shows number of animals
which is not true due to change in ecosystem.

9. According to your data, what is the ratio of third-order consumers to producers?

Explain your answer.
According to study data ratio of third order consumer is 0.1 to producers.Sun energy
is captured by the producers to produce their food by their own. Producers have high
amount of energy. Only 10% of energy of producers is transferred to the first order
consumers when producers are used by them as food. Second order consumers depend on
the first order consumers for requirement of their food and eat first order consumers.
Second order consumers get only 1% of total energy and so on. That is why ratio is
100:1.

10. Compare and contrast two of the ecosystems you studied. How is the energy
conversion efficiency similar or different?
Studied data have comparison between two of ecosystems, so here consider water
ecosystem and forest ecosystem. Both similarity and difference could be observed by
comparing these two ecosystems. Similarity was detected by estimating producers of both
ecosystems. Forest and water ecosystem possessed high numbers of producers than
consumers of ecosystem. Difference between forest and water ecosystem was concluded
by estimating products and consumptions, because products of both ecosystems were
different according to environment and consumption rate was also different according to
different consumers.

11. Does the population size increase or decrease at higher trophic levels in the
pyramid of numbers of an ecosystem consisting of a tree, insects (that are
herbivores) and birds feeding on the insects? Explain your answer.
At higher trophic level in the pyramids of numbers of ecosystem number of
population decreases. There is decrease in population size, as less number of animals
occupies the higher level on the food chain. Energy is used for the process of life from
low level to high level which causes flow of energy to higher level. More energy is
available at low level and this energy decreases with progress of one level to next level.
So there is decrease in energy at higher trophic level.

12. What might happen to an ecological pyramid of numbers in a forest ecosystem if

most of the deer were killed due to hunting by people and disease?
There must be visible change in forest ecosystem if deer were died due to diseases
or killed by hunters. Food chain is disturbed with the death of the deer because predators
which depend on the deer to fulfill their need of food would not find their food which
causes starvation and leads to death. Death of deer’s predator causes starvation of its own
predator and so on. But there would increase in population of producers because death of
deer cause increases its production. Deer would not available to depend on producers to
fulfill need of food, which cause increase in producer’s number.

13. What would happen to an ecosystem if the decomposers disappeared?

Decomposers are scavengers which play important role in recycling of material by
decaying dead bodies of plants and animals. Decomposers stabilize the food chain of
ecosystem. If decomposers were not part of food chain then there would be pile of waste
material and dead bodies of living organisms. Nutrients in the dead bodies of organisms
would lock up and not able to release back into the ecosystem. This would be result in
deficiency of nutrients for the producers and food chain stopped.

14. Could there be a food chain without herbivores and carnivores?

No, there could not be any possibility for the food chain in the ecosystem in the
absence of herbivore and carnivore, because herbivore depends on the producers
for their food and herbivores are predated by the carnivores for food requirements
and energy flow takes place in the sequence. If there were no herbivore and
carnivore, then there would no organism which uses producers as their food and
food chain never begins.
 STORY OF LIFE
CHAPTER 12

A LITTLE BIT OF NEANDERTHAL IN MANY OF US

Genes are like the story, and DNA is the language that the story is written in.
— SAM KEAN

1. Why is human contamination a threat to the validity of ancient DNA research on

mummies and other human remains? And why is human contamination, even when
present, less of a concern for animal tissues?
Human contamination is threat to the ancient DNA validity because root of
contamination is provided by holding and cleaning the samples directly. Specific
precautions are not adopted during handling and cleaning of mummies and human
remains in osteological lab. Contamination is matter of high concern during extracting
DNA of mummies and remains of pre-historic humans, like humans consider major root
of exogenous DNA, and it produce difficulties in detection of contamination. There are
many DNA sequencing of ancient time proved false on the base of false results due to
human contamination. Rist of human contamination of ancient DNA is more as sampled
mummies had ancient DNA degenerated which results in lessen amount of preservation.
Polymerase chain reaction is technique used to amplify the sequencing of DNA. This
technique is designed for amplification of modern DNA and it easily detects
contamination as compared to fragmentary ancient ones. Contaminant DNA is easily
detected by PCR technique because of more sensitivity.
Getting DNA from different parts of ancient human, as teeth and bone and use these
parts to get information about sex of ancient individual, give information about
phylogeny and detect the pathogenic diseases. But hurdle of this procedure is produced
by modern humans which are great source of contamination of ancient DNA.
Contaminated laboratories are also source of ancient DNA contamination but modern
laboratories adopt accurate procedures to avoid this drawback. Steps are taken to sterilize
gloves, laboratory coat and face mask to avoid contamination of sampled mummies and
human remains.
Human contamination is of less concern for animal’s tissue because animal’s tissue has
complex genome and compact bone tissues have less chances of human contamination as
compared to thinner tissues.

2. Why is it that mtDNA could show no sign of Neanderthal–Homo sapiens

interbreeding but nuclear DNA would?
First published DNA of any Neanderthal was mtDNA (Mitochondrial DNA). First
sample of DNA was extracted from fossils record of Neanderthal discovered in cave of
Feldhofer in Germany. After this discovery bone of sample was used and small sample
was taken to grind it and mtDNA was extracted which was replicated and studied to
analyze the sample. Analysts compared the Mitochondrial DNA of Neanderthal and
modern human. Sequencing shows difference by 27.2 substitutions ultimately. But
mtDNA was unable to provide complete genetic information in gene pool.
 There is possibility modern human having Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA died out
their lineage. There is also great possibility that Neanderthal had not participated to
mitochondrial DNA genome. Mitochondrial DNA moved down separately from mother
to its offspring. If only males of Neanderthal participated to human genome then there
would not any contribution in mitochondrial DNA line. One of possibility is that male of
Neanderthal and female of human interbreed to produce offspring which is fertile but
female Neanderthal and male human were unable to produce fertility in offspring, which
results in the inability of Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA to passed down. Reason for
inability of Mitochondrial DNA to show interbreeding is small size Mitochondrial DNA
of Neanderthal, which was not able to provide complete genomic information. But
Nuclear DNA provides complete information of small population size which includes all
genetic evidence of ancients. That is why nuclear DNA shows sign of interbreeding of
Neanderthal and modern human but Mitochondrial DNA unable to provide information
because only mother share Mitochondrial DNA and unable to share all genetic in
formations.

3. Explain the significance of Neanderthals being genetically equally similar to dif

fer ent Africans, but being more similar to Europeans than to Africans.
Genetic study of African has been still studying. More research on genetics is
continuing in European decent people. Lineage of African is not finely understood
because results of that study compromised on base of false assumptions. In African
population sequencing of genes compared with the Neanderthal sequencing. That was
resulted to less to no contents of Neandarthal. Modern peoples of Africa exhibit
Neanderthal DNA. That is more detailed manner to explore traces of Neanderthal DNA
in genomes of modern population. Genomes sequencing obtained from people of the
World including America, Africa and Europe decent.
Result of that procedure obtained as identification of 17 million base pairs as
Neanderthal in genome of African, but genomes of Europe population exhibit 51 million
of base pairs of DNA of Neanderthal. Multiple of migrations take place between humans
of Europe and Africa. So It is more possible that population of modern humans migrated
from Africa 200,000 years before. Migrated population matted with the Neanderthal
present in the Europe. It might be possible that people migrated from Africa to Europe
and interbreeding results in more population. That is why Neanderthals are more similar
to the European than to the Africans.

4. A widely accepted definition of a species is a population of individuals capable of

interbreeding. Now that we have evidence of Homo sapiens and Homo
neanderthalensis interbreeding, should we change the defini-tion of our species?
Name some other examples of species interbreeding.
Reproductive based separation is clue to know about new species form. There are
some barriers which cause division of population and split species into two different
groups. As result of isolation if individuals of split community encounter for matting but
unable to produce fertile offspring that can further interbreed to produce fertile offspring,
then such type of species considered different species.
Species moved out of Africa to Europe around 40,000 years ago. Which result in
reproductive isolation of those species from ancestors. Genetic based studies exhibit
those individuals of these two species produce fertile offspring that populated Europe. By
exhibiting these examples Homo neanderthalensis must be classified as Homo sapiens
neanderthalensis, as subspecies of Homo sapiens. Neanderthal species had not extinct, as
Neanderthal never different species. Population of Neanderthal died out about 30,000
years ago, but other population of Neanderthal became able to survive as result of
interbreeding with other population of modern humans.
There are some examples of other interbreed which are as follows:
 Cross of male of donkey and female of horse results in mule which is sterile.
 Cross of male of horse and female of donkey results in Hinny.
 Cross of zebra and donkey results in zonkey, while cross of zebra and horse
results in zorse.