UNIT-II REAL POWER – FREQUENCY CONTROL

1. What is the major control loops used in large generators?

The major control loops used in large generators are

 Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)

 Automatic load frequency control (ALFC).

2. What is the use of secondary loop?

Secondary loop is used to maintain the fine adjustment of the frequency, and also
by reset action maintains proper MW interchange with other pool members. This loop is
insensitive to rapid load and frequency changes but focuses instead on drift like changes
which take place over periods of minutes.

3. What is the advantage of AVR loop over ALFC?

The advantage of AVR loop over ALFC is very fast and therefore there is a
tendency, for the AVR dynamics to settle down before they can make themselves felt in
the slower load frequency control channel.

4. What is the difference between large and small signal analysis?

The difference between large and small signal analysis is given below. Large
signal analysis is used where voltage and power may undergo sudden changes of
magnitude that may approach 100 percent of operating values. Usually this type of
analysis leads to differential equations of non-linear type. Small signal analysis is used
when variable excursions are relatively small, typically at most a few percent of normal
operating values.

5. What is the exciter?

The exciter is the main component in AVR loop. It delivers the DC power to the
generator field. It must have adequate power capacity and sufficient speed of response
(rise time less than 0.1 sec).

6. What is the function of AVR?

The function of the AVR is to provide constancy of the generator terminal voltage
during normal, small and slow changes in the load.

7. Explain about static AVR loop.

In a static AVR loop, the execution power is obtained directly from the generator
terminals or from the station service bus. The AC power is rectified by thyristor bridges
and fed into the main generator field via slip rings. Static exciters are very fast and
contribute to improved transient stability.

8. Write the static performance of AVR loop.

Static performance of AVR loop is to regulate the terminal |V| to within required
static accuracy limit, have sufficient speed of response and be stable.
9. What is the disadvantage of high loop gain? How it is to be eliminated?

The disadvantage of high loop gain is that it causes undesirable dynamic response,
possibly instability. By adding series AND/OR feedback stability compensation to the
AVR loop, this conflicting situation can be resolved.

10. What are the effects of generator loading in AVR loop?

Effects of generator loading in AVR loop is given below. Added load does not
change the basic features of the AVR loop; it will however affect the values of both gain
factor Kf and the field constant. High loading will make the generator work at higher
magnetic saturation levels. This means smaller changes in |E| for incremental increases in
if, translating into the reduction of KF. The field time constant will likewise decrease as
generator loading closing the armature current paths. This circumstance permits the
formation of transient stator currents the existence of which yields a lower effective field
induction.

11. What are the functions of ALFC?

Function of ALFC’s is to maintain desired MW output of a generator unit and

assist in controlling the frequency of large interconnection. The ALFC also helps to keep
the net interchange of power between pool members at predetermined values. Control
should be applied in such a fashion that highly differing response characteristics of units
of various types are recognized. Also unnecessary power output changes should be kept
at a minimum in order to reduce wear of control valves.

12. Specify the disadvantage of ALFC loop.

The disadvantage of ALFC loop is that it will control only during normal changes
in load and frequency. It is unable to provide adequate control during emergency
situations, when large MW imbalances occur.

13. How is the real power in a power system controlled?

The real power in a power system is being controlled by controlling the driving
torque of the individual turbines of the system.

14. What is the need for large mechanical forces in speed-governing system?

Very large mechanical forces are needed to position the main valve against the
high stream pressure and these forces are obtained via several stages of hydraulic
amplifiers.

13.  Define control area.

It is possible to divide an extended power system into sub­areas in which the
generators are tightly coupled together so as to form a coherent group. Such a coherent
group   is   called   a   control   area   in   which   the   frequency   is   assumed   to   be   the   same
throughout in static as well as dynamic conditions.
 14.  What do you understand by coherent group of generators?

A control area is defined as a system to which a common generation control scheme is
applied. The electrical interconnection within each control area is very strong as compared to
the lies with the neighboring areas. All the generators in a control area swing in coherently or
it is characterized by a single frequency. It is necessary to be considered as many control area
as number of coherent group.

      15.  What is meant by AFRC?
∆fstat = (­1/B ∆PD)/(1 + 1/BR) = ­M/(B + 1/R) = ­M/β where β = B + 1/R

 = Area frequency response co efficient or characteristics p.u MW/Hz.

16. Define electric stiffness of the interconnected system. 
0 0
T12 = [|V1||V2|cos(δ 1 – δ 2)]/Pr1X12

= Synchronizing power coefficient or electric stiffness.
i.e., slope of the power angle curve at the initial operating angle δ120.

It is defined as the differential power increase obtained per differential power angle 
increase.

17.  Define Area Control Error.

Area Control error is the change in area frequency which when used in integral 
control loop forced the steady state frequency error to zero.

18. What is AGC? 

Abbreviated   as   AGC,  automatic  gain  control  is   a   circuit   found   on   some   electronic

devices   that   automatically   controls   the   gain   of   a   signal.   Using   AGC   means   that   weaker
signals receive more gain and stronger signals receive less gain or none at all. 

19. State the advantages of integral controller. 

(i) For integral controller gain in the sub­critical range i.e.,K1< Ki critical, system
is over damped and zero steady state error is achieved , after long time. 
(ii) From the response characteristics, observe that initial response with integral
controller is just the same as without integral controller. After a small period only the
controller becomes effective and depending on the value of integral controller gain
frequency error is minimized. Higher the gain, quicker the actions after initial drop in
frequency.

20. List the advantages of Multi area operation.
1. Under normal operating condition each control area should have the capacity to meet
its own load from its own spinning Generator, plus the scheduled interchange between
the neighboring areas.
2. Under emergency conditions, the energy can be drawn from the spinning reserve of all
the neighboring areas immediately due to the sudden loss of generating unit.
      21. Draw the  dynamic  response  of  change  in  frequency  for  a  step  load  change.

22. Differentiate static and dynamic response of an ALFC loop. 

 Static response of an ALFC loop will inform about frequency accuracy. 
 The dynamic response of an ALFC loop will inform about the stability of the loop. 

      23. What is the function of load frequency control?
The function of load frequency control on a power system is to change the control
valve   of   the   prime   movers   as   a   function   of   load   variations   in   order   to   hold   system
frequency constant.

 24. How is the real power in a power system controlled?
By controlling the driving torque of the individual turbines of the system.

25. What is meant by fly ball speed governor?

This is purely mechanical speed-sensitive device coupled directly to the hydraulic
amplifier which adjusts the control valve opening via the linkage mechanism.
 16-Mark Questions

1. Develop the block diagram model of uncontrolled two area load frequency control 
     system and explain the salient features under dynamic conditions. 

2. Develop the block diagram model of uncontrolled two area load frequency control  
    system and explain the salient features under static conditions. 

3. Draw the block diagram of LFC control of single area and derive the dynamic response.

4. Draw the block diagram of LFC control of single area and derive the steady state    
    frequency error. 

5. Obtain a block diagram for the representation of single control area without integral  
    control. 

6. What are the components of speed governor system of an alternator? Derive a transfer
function and sketch a block diagram.

7. Explain the tie-line bias control of two area system.

8. Explain the importance of flat tie-line and flat frequency control.

UNIT-III REACTIVE POWER – VOLTAGE CONTROL

1. What are the sources of reactive power? How it is controlled?

The sources of reactive power are generators, capacitors, and reactors.

These are controlled by field excitation.

2. Give some excitation system amplifier.

The excitation system amplifiers are,

 Magnetic amplifier

 Rotating amplifier

 Modern electronic amplifier.

3. When is feedback stability compensation used?

Feedback stability compensation is used to resolve the effect of high loop gain in
AVR. High loop gain is needed for static accuracy but this causes undesirable dynamic
response, possibly instability.

4. Give the characteristics of line compensators.

The characteristics of line compensators are,

 a. Ferranti effect is minimized.
b. Under excited operation of synchronous generator is not required.

5. What is known as bank of capacitors? How it is adjusted?

Bank of capacitors is the arrangement of number of capacitors connected in

parallel to get the desired capacitance. These can be adjusted in steps by switching
(mechanical).

6. What is the disadvantage of switched capacitors are employed for compensation?

When switched capacitors are employed for compensation, these should be
disconnected immediately under light load conditions to avoid excessive voltage rise and
Ferro resonance in presence of transformers.

7. What are the effects of capacitor in series compensation circuit?

The effects of capacitor in series compensation circuit are,
i. Voltage drop in the line reduces.
ii. Prevent voltage collapse.
iii. Steady state power transfer increases.
iv. Transient stability limit increases.

8. Give two kinds of capacitors used in shunt compensator.

The two kinds of capacitors used in shunt compensator are,

a. Static Var Compensator (SVC)
b. Thyristor Switched Capacitor

10. What is synchronous condenser?

Synchronous condenser is a synchronous motor running at no-load and having

excitation adjustable over a wide range. It feeds positive VARs into the line under
overexcited conditions and negative VARs when under excited.

11. Write about static VAR compensator (SVC).

Static VAR Compensator (SVC) comprise capacitor bank fixed or switched or

fixed capacitor bank and switched reactor bank in parallel. These compensators draw
reactive power from the line thereby regulating voltage, improve stability (steady state
and dynamic), control overvoltage and reduce voltage and current unbalances. In HVDC
application these compensators provide the required reactive power and damp out sub
harmonic oscillations.

12. What are static VAR switches or systems?

Static VAR switches or systems are Static VAR compensators which use
switching for VAR control. It means that terminology wise SVC=SVS.

13. Give some of the static compensators schemes.

Schemes of static compensators

14. Saturated reactor
15. Thyristor- Controlled Reactor (TCR)
16. Thyristor Switched capacitor (TSC)
17. Combined TCR and TSC compensator.

14. What is tap changing transformers?

Tap changing transformers are the power transformers and many distribution
transformers which have taps in one or more windings for changing the turn’s ratio.
15. Write the types of tap changing transformers.

Types of tap changing transformers

a. Off- load tap changing transformers.

b. Tap changing under load transformers.

16. What is the use of off-load tap changer and TCUL?

The off- load tap changers are used when it is expected that the ratio will need to
be changed only infrequently, because of load growth or some seasonal change. TCUL is
used when changes in ratio may be frequent or when it is undesirably to de-energize the
transformer to change the tap.

17. Compare shunt and series capacitors.
1. The voltage boost due to a shunt capacitor is evenly distributed over the transmission
line whereas the change in voltage between the two ends of a series capacitor where it
is connected in sudden. The voltage drop along the line is unaffected. 
2. For the same voltage, the reactive power capacity of a shunt capacitor is greater than
that of a series capacitor. 
3. The   shunt   capacitor   improves   the   power   factor   of   the   load   whereas   the   series
capacitor has little effect on the power factor. 
4. For long transmission lines  where the total  reactance  is  high, series capacitor  are
effective for improvement of system stability. 

18. State the functions of AVR.
The   function   of  AVR  excitation  control  is  to  regulate   generator   voltage  and  relative
power output. As the terminal voltage varies the excitation control, it maintains the terminal
voltage to the required standard and the demand of the reactive power is also met by the
excitation control unit.

19. What are the various functions of excitation system and also mention the types.
The   basic   function   of   an   excitation   system   is   to   provide   direct   current   to   the   synchronous
machine. In addition, the excitation system performs control and protective functions essentially to
the  satisfactory  performance  of   the  power   system   by  cooling  the   field  voltage,   thereby  the   field
current.

20. List the various components in AVR loop.
Exciter, comparator, amplifier, rectifier, synchronous generator.

21. What is the significance of stability compensation in AVR loop?
 Stability   compensation   improves   the   dynamic   response   characteristics   without
affecting the static loop again. 
 High loop gain is needed for static accuracy, but this causes undesirable dynamic
response i.e., possibility instability. 
 This conflict situation can be avoided by adding series and/or feedback stability
compensation to the AVR loop. 

22. What is the need for compensator in the AVR loop? 

Stability compensation improves the dynamic response characteristics without affecting
the static loop gain.
23. Distinguish between on­load and off­load tap changing. 
off­load tap changing
The   off­load   tap   changing   transformer   which   requires   the   disconnection   of
transformer when the tap settings is to be changed.
on­load tap changing
In this type, the voltage is a maximum value and since the current are divided
equally and flow in opposition through the coils, the resultant flux is zero and hence the
minimum
impedance.
 24. What is SVC? Mention the different types of SVC.

Static VAR compensators use switching for var control. These are also called static
VAR switches or systems. It means that terminology wise SVC=SVS. And we will use
these interchangeably.

25

25. What is a synchronous condenser and also state the merits 

It is a synchronous motor running at no­load and having excitation adjustable over
a   wide  range.  It   feeds   positive   VARs   into  the   line   under  overexcited   conditions   and
negative VARs when under excited.

16-Mark Questions

1. Draw the circuit diagram for a typical excitation system and derive the transfer
function model and draw the block diagram. 
2. Discuss generation and absorption of reactive power. 
3. Explain different types of static VAR compensators with a phasor diagram. 
4. Discuss about the various methods of voltage control. 
5. Derive the relations between voltage, power and reactive power at a node for
applications in power system control 
6. Explain stability compensation and effects of generator loading.
7. Explain the dynamic performance of AVR loop.
8. Explain typical brushless automatic voltage regulator.
 UNIT-IV UNIT COMMITMENT AND ECONOMIC DISPATCH

1. Define economic dispatch problem.

Economic dispatch problem is defined as the problem which minimizes the

operating cost of active power generation.

2. Define incremental cost.

Incremental cost is defined as the rate of change of fuel cost with active power
generation.

3. Write the load balance equation.

Load balance equation is given below.

Pg-Pd-PL=0.
4. Define base point.

Base point is defined as the present operating point of the system.

5. Define participation factor.

Participation factor is defined as the change in generation required to meet power

demand.

6. Define hydrothermal scheduling problem.

Hydrothermal scheduling problem is defined as the problem of minimizing the

thermal generation cost with the constraints of water availability.

7. Define unit commitment.

Unit commitment is defined as the commitment of minimum generator to meet

the required demand.

8. Define spinning reserve.

Spinning Reserve is defined as the term that describes the total amount of
generation availability from all units synchronized on the system.

9. What is meant by scheduled reserve?

Scheduled reserve include quick start diesel turbine units as well as most hydro
units and pumped storage hydro units that can be brought online, synchronized and
brought up to full capacity quickly.

10. What are the thermal unit constraints?

The thermal unit constraints are

i. Minimum up time
ii. Minimum down time
iii. Crew constraints
11. What are the two approaches to treat a thermal unit to operating temperature?

The two approaches to treat a thermal unit to operating temperature are given
below.
a. Allows the unit boiler to cool down and then heat backup to operating
temperature in time for a scheduled turn on.
b. Requires that sufficient energy be input to the boiler to just maintain operating
temperature.

12. What are the techniques for the solution of the unit commitment problem?

The techniques for the solution of the unit commitment problem are
i. Priority list method
ii. Dynamic programming
iii. Lagrange relation

13. What are the assumptions made in dynamic programming problem?

The assumptions made in dynamic programming problem are given below.

i. A state consists of an array of units with specified units operating and the rest of
the time.
ii. The startup cost of a unit is independent of the time it has been offline.

iii. There are no costs for shutting down the units.

14. Define long range hydro scheduling problem.

Long range hydro scheduling problem is defined as the problem involves the long
range of water availability and scheduling of reservoir water releases. For an interval of
time that depends on the reservoir capacities.

15. What are the optimization techniques for long range hydro scheduling problem?

The optimization techniques for long range hydro scheduling problem are

a. Dynamic programming
b. Composite hydraulic simulation methods
c. Statistical production cost

16. Define short range hydro scheduling problem.

Short range hydro scheduling problem is defined as the hour by hour scheduling
of all generators on a system to achieve minimum production condition for the given time
period.

17. Define system blackout problem.

System blackout problem is defined as the event occurs on a system that leaves it
operating with limits violated; the event may be followed by a series of further actions
that switch other equipment out of service. If the process of cascading failures continues,
the entire system of it may completely collapse.
18. What is meant by cascading outages?

Cascading outages are the process if one of the remaining lines is now too heavily
loaded, it may open due to relay action, thereby causing even more load on the remaining
lines.
19. Mention the constraints in unit commitment problem. 
1.Spinning reserve:

2.Thermal Constraints = Minimum up time
Minimum down time
Crew Constraint

         3.Other Constraints = Hydro Constraint
Must run constraint
Fuel constraint.

20. What are base­point and participation factors?

The present operating point of the system is called base point.

The change in generation required to meet power demand is called as participation factor.

21. List the various constraints in economic dispatch problem.
The equality constraint equation
PD = PG1 + PG2 + …….. + PGN =     PGi …(1)

Power   demand   =   Total   Generation

Where, PGi = Output of unit i, MW.

PD = Total power received by the plant bus and transferred to the load.

Since our system is a compact one and we neglect the losses in the transmission
line. We may write equation (1) as,

H (PGi, PG2 ……….. PGN) = PD ­     PGi = 0

22. Explain penalty factor.

The exact coordination equation is given by

Lamda=(IC)i/1­(ITL)i=(IC)iLi.

Li=1/1­(ITL)i

Li is a penalty factor where ITLi incremental transmissions loss.

23. Define spinning reserve.

Spinning   reserve   is   the   total   amount   of   generation   available   from   all   units
synchronized  on the system minus the present load and losses being supplied.
 Spinning reserve = Total amount of generation – (Present load + losses)

24. Compare economic dispatch and unit commitment.
 Unit Commitment
Optimum allocation of number of units to be
operated   (to   determine   the   units   of   a   plant
that   should   operate   for   a   given   load   is   the
problem of unit commitment)
There are number of subsets of the complete
set of n units that would satisfy the expected
demand
Purpose of units commitment is to find the
optimal   subset   among   the   subsets   which
provide the minimum operating cost
Economic load dispatch
Optimum   location   of   generation   to   each
station (at each generating station at various
load levels)
The problem assumes that there are n units
already connected to the systems
Purpose of economic dispatch problems is to
find the optimum operating policy for these n
units
25. What are the factors affecting the cost of generation?
Equality constraint
Inequality constraints
Generator Constraints
Voltage Constraints
Running space capacity constraints
Transformers tap settings.
Transmission line constraints

26. What are the advantages of using participation factor?

a) Computer implementation of economic dispatch is straight forward 

b) Execution time for economic dispatch is short 

c) It will always give consistent answers when units reach limits. 

d) It   gives   linear   incremental   cost   function   or   has   non­convex   cost

curves. 
 16-Mark Questions

1. Derive the coordination equation with losses neglected. 

2. Derive the coordination equation of an ‘n’ bus power system taking into account the

effect of system losses. 

3. Derive the expression for base point and participation method. 

4. State   the   unit   commitment   problem.   With   the   help   of   flowchart   explain   forward
dynamic programming solution method.

5. Explain Priority list method using full Load average production cost. State the  
      merits and demerits.

6. Numerical problems in economic dispatch & unit commitment.

7.   Explain about start­up and shut­down costs?

8.   Explain briefly brute­force technique.
 UNIT-V COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEM

1. What are the functions of control center?

The functions of control center are

a. System monitoring
b. Contingency analysis
C. Security constrained optimal power flow.

2. What is the function of system monitoring?

Function of system monitoring is to provide updated information about the power

system.

3. What is SCADA system?

SCADA stands for supervisory control and data acquisition system. It allows a
few operators to monitor the generation and high voltage transmission systems and to
take action to correct overloads.

4. What are the states of power system?

The states of power system are

i. Normal state
ii. Contingency mode
iii. Alert mode
iv. Emergency mode

5. Define normal mode.

Normal mode is defined as the mode of operation if the system is in secure even
the occurrence of all possible outages has been simulated the system remain secure.

6. Define alert mode.

Alert mode is defined as the mode of operation of the system that it does not
remain in the secure for the occurrence of all possible outages.
7. What are the distribution factors?

The distribution factors are

a. Line outage distribution factor
b. Generation outage distribution factor.

8. Define state estimation.

State estimation is defined as the process of assigning a value to an unknown

system state variable based on measurements from that system according to some criteria.

9. Define maximum likelihood criterion.

Maximum likelihood criterion is defined as the problem of maximizing the

probability that estimate the state variable x, is the true value of the state variable vector
(i.e, to maximize the P(x) = x).

10. Define weighted least-squares criterion.

Weighted least-squares criterion is defined as the problem of minimizing the sum

of the squares of the weighted deviations of the estimated measurements, from the actual
measurement.

11. Define minimum variance criterion.

Minimum variance criterion is defined as the problem of minimizing the expected

value of the squares of the deviations of the estimated components of the state variable
vector from the corresponding components of the true state variable vector.

12. Define must run constraint.

Must run constraint is defined as the condition that some units are given a must
run status during certain times of the year for reason of voltage support on the
transmission network.

13. Define fuel constraint.

Fuel constrain is defined as the condition if a system in which some units have
limited fuel or else have constraints that require them to burn a specified amount of fuel
in a given time.
14. What are the assumptions made in priority list method?

The assumptions made in priority list method are

i. No load cost is zero

ii. Unit input-output characteristics are linear between zero output and full
load
iii.There are no other restrictions startup cost are affixed amount.

15. State the advantages of forward dynamic programming approach.

Advantage of forward DP approach is given below. If the start up cost of a unit is

a function of the unit is a function of the time it has been offline, then a forward dynamic
program approach is more suitable since the previous history of the unit can be computed
at each stage.

16. State the disadvantages of dynamic programming method.

The disadvantage of dynamic programming method is that it has the necessity of

forcing the dynamic programming solution to search over a small number of commitment
states to reduce the number of combinations that must be tested in each period.

17. What are the known values in short term hydro scheduling problem?

Known values in short term hydro scheduling problem are

a. The load
b. Hydraulic inflows
c. Unit availabilities.

18. What is meant by telemetry system?

Telemetry system is the process of measurement of state of the system and

transmission of these states to a control center.

19. What are the functions of security constrained optimal power flow?

The functions of security constrained optimal power flow are

a. Contingency analysis is combined with an optimal power flow which
seeks to make changes to the optimal dispatch of generation

b. As well as other adjustments, so that when a security

analysis is run, no contingency result in violations.
20. Define the state of optimal dispatch.

The state of optimal dispatch is defined as the state that the power system is in
prior to any contingency. It is optimal with respect to economic operation but may not be
secure.

21. Define post contingency.

Post contingency is defined as the state of the power system after a contingency
has occurred.

22. Define secure dispatch.

Secure dispatch is defined as the state of the power system with no contingency
outages, but with correction to the operating parameters to account for security violations.

23. What are the priorities for operation of modern power system?
The priorities for operation of modern power system are
A. Operating the system in such a way that power is delivered reliably
B. Within the constraints placed on the system operation by reliability
considerations, the system will be operated most economically.

24. What is meant by linear sensitivity factor method?

Linear sensitivity factor method is the easiest way to provide quick calculation of
possible overloads because many outages become very difficult to solve if it is desired to
present the results quickly.

25. What are linear sensitivity factors?

Linear sensitivity factors are

i. Generation shift factors
ii. Line outage distribution factors.

26. What is the use of line distribution factor?

Line distribution factor is used to apply to the testing for overloads when
transmission circuits are lost.
 16-Mark Questions

1. Briefly discuss the various functions of energy control centre.

2. Explain the different operating states of power system with state transition diagram.

3.   Explain the hardware components of SCADA with neat diagram and also mention    
       the functions of it. 

4. Explain about power system security.
 
     5. What is EMS? What are its major functions in power system operation and control?
 
     6. Explain the various controls for secure operation.

     7. Explain briefly how the system states are continuously monitored and controlled.

     8. Explain the substation control functions arranged through SCADA system.