Professional Documents
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Chapter 1: An Overview of Organizational Behavior what they do is critical to working effectively with and managing others.
Gives everyone the knowledge and tools they need to be effective at any
What is an Organization? organizational level.
An organization is a social unit of people that is structured and managed to
meet a need or to pursue collective goals. How Organizational Behavior Impact Organizational Success
The success of any organization is often determined by how effectively Organization as a whole also benefits from OB
managers can enhance the performance behaviors of their employees, enhance By appropriately applying OB knowledge about individuals, groups, and
their commitment to and engagement with the organization, promote the effect of organizational structure on worker behavior, the conditions
citizenship behaviors, and minimize dysfunctional behaviors. can be created that make organizations effective.
OB also helps the companies perform well
WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR? OB also influences absenteeism and turnover.
Study of human behavior in an organizational settings, of the interface One central value of organizational behavior – isolates important aspects of the
between human behavior and the organization, and of the organization itself. manager’s job and offers specific perspectives on the human side of
What people think, feel, and do management: people as organizations, people as resources, and people as
in and around organizations. people.
Linkages among human Organizational behavior – allows us to understand that as a leader of a virtual
behavior in organizational tea, one must foster trust, encourage open dialogue, and clarify guidelines.
settings, the individual-
organization interface, the THE MANAGERIAL CONTEXT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
organization itself and the OB is not a defined business function or area of responsibility similar to
environment surrounding the finance or marketing. Rather an understanding of OB provides a set of insights
organization. and tools all managers can use to carry out their jobs more effectively.
highly interrelated.
Basic Management Functions and Organizational Behavior
Why Study Organizational Behavior? Planning - determining an organization’s desired future position and the best
Become a better employee means of getting there.
Become a better manager Includes studying and analyzing the environment, deciding on
Understand how people behave and why they do what they do appropriate goals, outlining strategies for achieving those goals, and
Organizations that successfully implement OB principles have: developing tactics to help execute the strategies.
Motivated, engaged employees whose goals align with business strategy
Organizing - Designing jobs, grouping jobs into units, and establishing
Strong leadership and direction – Better bottom lines
patterns of authority between jobs and units
Process produces the basic structure, or framework, of the organization.
The Strategic Context of Organizational Behavior Growth – Company expansion organically or through acquisitions
Competitive Advantage – anything that gives a form an edge over rivals in Response to investor preferences for rising earnings per share, and the
attracting customers and defending itself against competition. required business expansion generally requires the acquisition of
additional talent.
Depends on the firm’s ability to find and retain the right number and
Sources of Competitive Advantage types of employees to sustain its intended growth.
Innovation – developing new products, services, and markets in improving Organic growth – expands by opening new factories or stores.
current ones Merger and Acquisitions – common way for organizations to achieve
Distribution – dominating distribution channels to block competition growth, expand internationally, and respond to industry deregulations.
Speed – excelling at getting you product or service to consumers quickly.
CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVE ON ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
Convenience – being the easiest for customers to do business with
First to market – introducing products and services before competitors.
Where does original behavior come from?
Cost – being the lowest-cost provider
Formal Study of OB began in 1890s. – Frank and Lilian Gilberth and Created a new era of more humane, employee-centered management and
Frederick Winslow Taylor identified the positive effects of precise highlighted the importance of people to organizational success but was
instructions, goal setting and rewards on motivation. hampered by unsound research methods
FWT – advocated that managers should study jobs of workers, break
those jobs into small tasks, train workers in the “one best way” of doing Mary Parker Follet – Prophet of management
their jobs, and then pay workers based on the number of units they Variety of phenomena, including creativity exercises such as brainstorming,
produced. the “groupthink” effect in meetings, and what later become known as
Scientific Management – based on the belief that productivity is maximized “management by objectives” and “total quality management”
when organizations are rationalized with precise sets of instructions based on Faulty decisions are made because group members try to minimize the
time-and-motion studies. conflict and reach consensus by neglecting to critically analyze test ideas.
Belief that productivity is maximized – when organizations are
rationalized with precise sets of instructions based on time-and-motion W. Edwards Deming – guru of quality management
studies. Describes how to do high-quality, productive, and satisfying work.
Four Principles of Scientific Management Deming’s plan-do-check-act cycle of continuous improvement promoted the
Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on adaption of fourteen principles to make organization efficient and capable of
scientifically studying the tasks using time-and-motion studies. solving almost any problem.
Scientifically select, train, and develop all workers rather than leaving Believed that removing fear workplace gives employees pride in their
them to passively train themselves. workmanship, which increases production.
Managers provide detailed instructions and supervision to workers to
ensure that they are following the scientifically developed methods.
Divide work nearly equally between workers and managers. Managers
should apply scientific management principles to planning the work, and
workers should actually perform the tasks.
Contemporary Organizational Behavior
C onceptual Perspective on
O rganizational B ehavior
System Perspective
Outcomes of scientific management:
Productivity increased Situational
However, work was extremely monotonous / dehumanizing Perspective
Contingency
Mostly abandoned after World War I
Interactional
Human Relations Movement (HRM): – Inspired by Hawthorne effect:
people improve some aspect of their behavior or performance simply because
they know they are being assessed Organizations as Open System
Viewed organizations as cooperative systems
Treated workers’ orientations, values, and feelings as important parts of
organizational dynamics and performance
System – An interrelated set of elements that function as a whole—inputs are Organizational system receives four kinds of input from its environment:
combined/transformed by managers into outputs from the system material, human, financial, and informational.
Value of the Systems Perspective
Underscores the importance of an organization’s environment
Conceptualizes the flow and interaction of various elements of the
organization
Correlation:
– Ranges between -1 and +1
– A correlation of +1 is a perfect positive relationship: as one variable increases, the
other always increases
– A correlation of -1 is a perfect negative relationship: as one variable increases, the
other always decreases
– A correlation of 0 means that there is no relationship between the two variables
Diversity - The variety of observable and unobservable similarities and
differences among people
Types of Diversity
Surface-level diversity: observable differences in people, can be seen directly
(e.g. race, gender, ethnicity, physical abilities, and physical characteristics)
Deep-level diversity: can’t be seen directly (e.g. goals, skills, values,
personalities, decision-making styles, knowledge, abilities, and attitudes)
Separation diversity: differences in position or opinion among group members
reflecting disagreement or opposition – dissimilarity in attitude or value
Variety: meaningful differences in a certain type or category (e.g. knowledge,
functional background)
Disparity: differences in concentration of valuable assets or resources –
dissimilarity in rank, pay, decision-making authority, or status, for instance
(e.g. authority, pay, status)
Generational Differences
Chapter 2: The
Age-based diversity is a major issue facing many organizations today.
Changing
Environment of Reverse mentoring: pairing a junior employee with a senior employee to
Organizations Chapter Outline transfer technical/computer skills from the junior employee to the senior
one
Generations (by birth year)
Globalizati Seniors: 1922 – 1943
on
Baby boomers: 1943 – 1963
Generation X: 1964 – 1980
Generation Y / Millennials: 1980 – 2000
Technology Diversity
Person-Vocation Fit
Do the person’s interests, abilities, values, and personality fit his or her
occupation.
Chapter 3: Individual Characteristics Dimensions to fit: aptitudes, interests, personal values, long-term goals
PEOPLE IN ORGANIZATION Fit between a person’s interest, abilities, values, and personality and a
profession.
Individual Differences
Personal attributes that may vary from one person to another
Physical, psychological and emotional differences
Sixteen personality classifications result from the higher and lower positions of the
general dimensions
Myers-Briggs Framework
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a popular questionnaire used to assess
Extroversion Introversion personality types
Energized by things and people. Find energy in ideas, concepts, Communications styles
There are interactors and “on the abstractions. Interaction preferences
fly” thinkers whose motto is They can be social, but also need
“ready, fire, aim” quiet time to recharge their OTHER IMPORTANT PERSONALITY TRAITS
batteries. Locus of Control – The extent to which a person believes her circumstances
Reflective thinkers whose motto are a function of either her own actions or of external factors beyond her
is “ready, aim, aim” control
Sensing Intuitive People who believe that individuals are in control of their loves are said
People who are detailed oriented Seek out patterns and to have an internal locus of control.
They want and trust facts relationships among the facts Authoritarianism – The belief that power and status differences are appropriate
they have learned. within hierarchical social systems such as organizations
Trusts their intuition and look for Machiavellianism – trait causing a person to behave in ways to gai power and
the “big picture” control the behavior of others.
Thinking Feeling Named after Niccolo Machiavelli – explained how nobility could easily
Thinkers value fairness, and Value harmony, and focus on gain and use power.
decide things impersonally based human values as they make Tolerance for Risk (Risk Propensity) – The degree to which a person is
on objective criteria and logic decisions or judgements. willing to take chances and make risky decisions
Judging Perceiving Tolerance for Ambiguity – The tendency to view ambiguous situations as
Decisive and tend to plan. Adaptable, spontaneous, and either threatening or desirable
Focus on completing tasks, take curios. Self-Efficacy – confidence in his or her ability to organize and execute the
action quickly, and want to know They start many tasks, and often courses of action necessary to accomplish a specific task.
General Self-Efficacy :reflects a generalized belief that we will be Intrapersonal: Self-awareness
successful at whatever challenges or tasks we might.
Self-Esteem – Feelings of self-worth and liking or disliking oneself Emotional Intelligence
The ability to perceive and express emotions, to understand and use them, and
Type A and B traits
to manage emotions in oneself and other people
Dimensions of EQ
Type A Type B
Self-awareness: being aware of what you’re feeling
Impatient, competitive, More relaxed and easy going and
Self-motivation: persisting through obstacles, setbacks
ambiguous, and uptight less overly competitive than type
Self-management: managing your own emotions and impulses
More competitive A
Empathy: sensing how others are feeling
More devoted to work Less competitive
Social skills: effectively handling emotions of others
Stronger sense of time urgency Less devoted to work
Weaker sense of time urgency.
LEARNING STYLES
The Bullying Personality Refers to individual differences and preferences in how we process
Workplace bullying – repeated mistreatment of another employee through information when problem solving, learning, or engaging in similar activities.
verbal abuse; conduct that is threatening, humiliating, or intimidating; or
sabotage that interferes with the other person’s work. Sensory Modalities
Machiavellianism may lead to bullying. System that interacts with the environment through one of the basic sense
Visual: learning by seeing
INTELLEGENCE Auditory: learning by hearing
Tactile: learning by touching
General mental ability Kinesthetic: learning by doing
General mental ability - the capacity to rapidly and fluidly acquire, process,
and apply information. Learning Style Inventory (by David
Involves reasoning, remembering, understanding, and problem solving. Kolb)
Information processing capacity - the manner in which individuals process and Convergers
organize information Active experimentation
affects task learning, performance, and ability to process and organize and abstract
information efficiently conceptualization
positively affected by general mental ability Superior in technical
tasks and problems;
Multiple Intelligence (Gardner’s Theory) inferior in interpersonal
Suggest that there are number of distinct forms of intelligence that each learning settings
individual possess in varying degrees. Divergers
Linguistic: Words and language Concrete experience and reflective observation
Logical: Mathematical Logic and numbers Alternative hypotheses and ideas, and tend to be imaginative and
Musical: Music, rhythm, and sound people/feeling oriented.
Bodily: Kinesthetic Body movement and control Assimilators
Spatial: Visual Images and space Abstract conceptualization and reflective observation
Interpersonal: Other people’s feelings Logical soundness and preciseness of ideas.
Accommodators
Mainly active experimentation and concrete experience
Focus on risk taking, opportunity seeking and action
Action oriented job: marketing and sales.
ATTITUDES IN ORGANIZATIONS
Attitudes – complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific
ideas, situations, or other people.
Mechanism through which most people express their feelings.
How attitudes are formed "live for today" than to "save for tomorrow.“ In other words, he could tell
Cognition: the knowledge a himself that a short life filled with smoking and sensual pleasures is better than
person presumes to have a long life devoid of such joys. In this way, he would be decreasing the
importance of the dissonant cognition (smoking is bad for one's health).
about something
Knowledge may be Seek additional information to better reason that the benefits of one of the
true, partially true, or conflicting attitudes or behaviors outweigh the costs of the other (For example,
totally false. thinking smoking causes lung cancer will cause dissonance if a person smokes.
Affect or Emotion: a However, new information such as “research has not proved definitely that
person’s feelings toward smoking causes lung cancer” may reduce the dissonance.)
something
Key Work-Related Attitudes.
Similar to emotion – something over which we have little or no conscious Job Satisfaction – reflects our attitudes and feelings about our job
control The extent to which a person is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work.
Intention: a component of an attitude that guides a person’s behavior Influenced be: work itself, personality, attitudes, and values
Some attitudes, are their corresponding intentions, are much more central Organizational Commitment – reflects the degree to which an employee
and significant to an individual that others identifies with the organization and its goals wants to stay with the
organization. (a person’s identification with and attachment to an organization)
Cognitive Dissonance Affective Commitment: positive emotional attachment to the
organization and strong identification with its values and goals.
an incompatibility or conflict between behavior and an attitude or between two
Normative Commitment: feeling obliged to stay with an organization for
different attitudes.
moral and ethical reasons
The anxiety a person experiences when her behavior contradicts her attitudes
Continuance Commitment: staying with and organization because of
or when she simultaneously holds two contradictory attitudes.
perceived high economic (taking another job would mean losing valuable
For example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that smoking stock options) and/or social costs (friendships with coworkers) involved
causes cancer (cognition), they are in a state of cognitive dissonance. with leaving.
Some people are aware with dissonance and make a conscious decision to not Employee Engagement -heightened emotional and intellectual connection that
reduce it – influence by these things: an employee has for his/her job, organization, manager, or coworkers that, in
Your perception of the importance of the elements that are creating the turn, influences him/her to apply additional discretionary effort to his/her
dissonance. work.
The amount of influence you feel you have over these element.
The rewards involved in the dissonance. VALUES AND EMOTIONS IN ORGANIZATION
Values – ways of behaving or end-states that are desirable to a person or to a
Attitude change group. (conscious or unconscious)
Attitudes are not stable as personal attributes
Object of an attitude changes, a person’s attitude toward that object may also Types of Values
change. Terminal Values Instrumental Values
Object of the attitude becomes less important or less relevant to the person Reflect our long-term life goals, and Preferred by means of achieving our
Changes their attitudes as a way to reduce cognitive dissonance may include prosperity, happiness, a terminal values or our preferred ways
secure family, and a sense of of behaving.
How to reduce cognitive dissonance? accomplishment (Responsible, independent, capable)
Change the conflicting attitude/behavior Intrinsic Work Values Extrinsic Work Values
Related to work itself. Related to the outcomes of doing work.
Reason that one of the conflicting attitudes or behaviors is not important in this (Helping others, doing challenging (high earnings, recognition and job
context (For Example, A person could convince themselves that it is better to work, and being an exemplary leader) security)
Mood – short-term emotional states that are not directed toward anything in
Conflict among Values particular.
Intrapersonal value conflict – between the instrumental value of ambition and Affectivity – represents our tendency to experience a particular mood or to
the terminal value of happiness. react things with certain emotions.
Interpersonal value conflict – occur when two different people hold conflicting Positive affect – reflects a combination of high energy and positive
values. evaluation characterized by emotions like elation. (upbeat and optimistic,
Cause personality clashes and other disagreements. overall sense of well-being, seeing things in a positive light)
Individual-organization value conflict – when an employee’s values conflict Negative affect – feelings of being upset, fearful, and distressed.
with the values of the organization. (downbeat and pessimistic, seeing things in a negative way, seeming to
be in a bad mood)
How Values differ around the World Not opposites rather dimensions.
Two Major Dimensions
Traditional vs secular-rational values PERCEPTION IN ORGANIZATION
reflects the contrast between societies in which religion is very important Perception – set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and
and those in which it is not. interprets information about the environment
Societies near the traditional pole emphasize the importance of parent-
child ties and deference to authority, along with absolute standards and Basic Perceptual Processes:
traditional family values, and reject divorce, abortion, euthanasia, and Selective perception: screening out information that we are uncomfortable
suicide. with or that contradicts our beliefs
These societies have high levels of national pride, and a nationalistic Stereotyping: categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute.
outlook. certain forms of stereotyping can be useful and efficient
Societies with secular-rational values have the opposite preferences on all
of these topics Errors in Perception
Survival vs self-expression values: Categorization – tendency to put things into groups and then exaggerate the
reflects the contrast between societies that emphasize economic and similarities within and the differences among the groups
physical security (ethnocentric outlook and low levels of trust and Halo effect – forming a general impression of something or someone based on
tolerance) vs those that emphasize subjective well-being, self-expression, a single characteristic
and quality of life. Contrast effect – evaluating someone by comparing them with recently-
Self-expression values give high priority to environmental protection, encountered people
tolerance of diversity and rising demands for participation in decision Projection – seeing one’s own characteristics in others
making in economic and political life. First impression bias – inability to let go of first impressions, particularly
The Role of Emotions in Behavior negative ones
Emotions – intense, short-term physiological, behavioral, and psychological
reactions to a specific object, person, or event that prepare us to respond to it. Our impressions and expectation of other can become self-fulfilling prophecies.
Four important elements
Emotions are short events or episodes: relatively short-lived. Perception and Attribution
Emotions are directed at something or someone. – this differentiates Attribution – refers to the way we explain the cause of our own as well as
emotions from mood, which are short-term emotional states that are not other people’s behaviors and achievements, and understand why people do
directed toward anything in particular. what they do.
Emotions are experience. Are they due to the individual because of internal factors such as effort
Emotions create a state of physical readiness through physiological and ability?
reactions. Or are they due to the environment because of external factors such as
luck, resources, and other people?
Affect and Mood Three rules we use to determine internal vs external attribution
Consistency: has he person regularly behaved this way or experience this
outcome in the past? The Stress Process (Jańos Hugo Bruno “Hans” Selye)
Distinctiveness: does the person act the same way or receive similar General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) - Identifies three stages of response to a
outcomes in different types of situations? stressor: alarm, resistance, exhaustion
Consensus: would others behave similarly in the same situation or Stage 1 (Alarm): person may feel some degree of panic and begin to
receive the same outcome? wonder how to cope. --- fight or flight question.
Self-Handicapping - People create obstacles for themselves that make success Stage 2 (Resistance): stressor is extreme, the person may unable to cope
less likely up with it. – individual gathers his or her strength
Obstacles provide external explanation for failure, thereby preserving (physically/emotionally) and begins to resist the negative effects of the
one’s sense of self- competence. stressor.
Person is resisting the effects of the stressor
Perception and Fairness, Justice and Trust Stage 3 (exhaustion): prolonged exposure to stressor without resolution
Organizational Fairness – employees’ perceptions of organizational events, may bring on phase 3.
policies, and practices as being fair or not fair. At this stage person literally gives up and can no longer fight the
Forms of Organizational Fairness stressor.
Distributive fairness - perceived fairness of the outcome received
(resource distributions, promotions, hiring and layoff decisions and Sources of stress
raises) Eustress: pleasurable stress accompanying positive events
Procedural fairness – addresses the fairness of the procedures used to Lead to a number of positive outcome
generate outcome. Distress: unpleasant stress accompanying negative events
Interactional fairness: whether the amount of information about the What most people think of when they hear the word stress.
decision and the process was adequate, and the perceived fairness of the
interpersonal treatment and explanations received during the decision- Causes and Consequences of Stress
making process. Most Common Causes of Stress
Intrapersonal fairness: perceived degree to which people are treated Organizational stressors
with respect by those who execute procedures or determine Life stressors (life change/life trauma)
outcomes. Most Common Consequences of Stress
Informational fairness: perceived extent to which employees receive Individual consequences
adequate explanations about decisions affecting their work lives. Organizational consequences
Importance of Motivation
time
relaxation
management P = performance of the employee
M = motivation: employee must want to do the job well
A = ability: must be able to do job efficiently
E = environment: must have the materials, resources, equipment and
information required to do the job.
role support
management groups The Motivational Framework
Need – something an individual requires or wants.
Need deficiency: triggers attempts to satisfy the need
Goal-directed behaviors result from individuals trying to satisfy their need
Organizational Coping Strategy deficiencies
Institutional programs Rewards and punishments are consequences of the goal-directed behavior
Design of work and schedule be focus of organizational effort to reduce Reassessment of need deficiency occurs after the person assesses the extent to
stress. which the outcome addressed the original need deficiency
Fostering a healthy work culture
Supervision
Collateral programs
Organizational programs specifically created to help employees deal with
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The ERG Theory
Input-to-outcome ratio:
Input: are an individual’s contributions to the organization – such factors
as education, experience, effort and loyalty.
Outcomes: are what the person receives in return-pay, recognition, social
relationships, intrinsic rewards, and similar things.
Responses to Equity and Inequity Effort-to-performance expectancy – perceived probability that effort will lead
Comparison of Self with Others to performance
Inequity Equity Performance-to-outcome expectancy – perceived probability that performance
Motivation to reduce inequity Motivation to maintain current will lead to certain outcomes
Change inputs situation Outcome – Anything that results from performing a behavior
Change Outcomes Valence – degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness (value) that a particular
Alter Perceptions of Self outcome has for a person
Alter Perception of Other
Change Comparisons The Porter-Lawler Model
Leave Situation Focuses on the relationship between satisfaction and performance
Assumes that:
Evaluation and Implications If rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead to
Social comparisons clearly are a powerful factor in the workplace satisfaction
Satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic (intangible) Cognitive view suggests that people draw on their experiences and
and extrinsic (tangible) rewards for performance. use past learning as a basis for their present behavior.
Intrinsic rewards are intangible – a feeling of accomplishment, a People make choices about their behavior
sense of achievement, and so forth People recognize the consequences on their choices
Extrinsic rewards are tangible outcomes such as pay and People evaluate those consequences and add them to prior or
promotion. learning, which affects future choices.
Reinforcement Theory and Learning
Based on the idea that behavior is a function of its consequences.
People explore a variety of possible behavior.
Social Learning
When people observe the behaviors of others, recognize the consequences, and
alter their own behavior as a result.
Conditions:
Behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively simple
Social learning usually involves observed and imitated behavior that is
concrete, not intellectual.
Social learning to occur, we must possess the physical ability to imitate
the behavior observed.
Evaluations and
Behavior Modifications
Implications
Application of reinforcement theory to influence the behaviors of the people in
Because expectancy theory is so complex, it is difficult to apply directly in the
organizational settings.
workplace.
Fundamental Guidelines Nature of the Stimulus
Determine the primary outcomes each employee wants Positive Negative
Decide what levels/kinds of performance are needed to meet Present the Positive reinforcement; Punishment; decreases
organizational goals Action stimulus increases the behavior the behavior
Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible Remove the Extinction; decreases Negative reinforcement;
Link desired outcomes and desired performance stimulus the behavior increases the behavior
Analyze the situation for conflicting expectancies
Make sure the rewards are large enough Positive reinforcement – involves the use of rewards to increase the likelihood
Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone that a desired behavior – high performance, for instance – will be repeated.
Negative reinforcement (avoidance) – based on the removal of current or
LEARNING-BASED PERSPECTIVE ON MOTIVATION future unpleasant consequences to increase the likelihood that someone will
Learning - relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential repeat a behavior
resulting from direct or indirect experience Avoidance, or removal of something undesirable can be motivating
Punishment – application of negative outcomes to decrease the likelihood of
How Learning Occurs behavior
Traditional View: Classical Conditioning Extinction – involves the removal of reinforcement (positive or negative)
A simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an following the incidence of the behavior to be extinguished to decrease the
unconditioned stimulus likelihood of that behavior being repeated.
Contemporary View: Learning as a Cognitive Process
Assumes people are conscious, active participants in how they learn The Timing of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement – schedule is one in which the desired behavior is
reinforce each time that it occurs
Partial Reinforcement – schedule if one in which the desired behavior is
reinforced only part of the time.
Fixed-ratio: desired behavior is reinforced after a specific number of
correct responses.
Fixed-interval: desired behavior is reinforced after a certain amount of
time has passed
Variable-ratio: desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable
number of behaviors
Variable-interval: desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable
amount of time has elapsed.
Job Specialization
Jobs should be scientifically studied, broken down into small component tasks,
and then standardized across all workers doing those jobs
Follows Adam Smith’s concept of the division of labor
Rational and efficient way to structure jobs
Jobs designed for efficiency can become boring and monotonous, resulting in
job dissatisfaction