Fundamental of Integration

If derivative of function g(x) with respect to x is f(x) i.e., g'(x)= f(x) then g(x) is called an anti-
derivative or an integral or a primitive of f(x) with respect to x. More generally If g'(x) = f(x),
then (g(x)+c) = f(x) (where c is an arbitrary constant) and hence g(x) + c (where c R) is
called anti derivatives or integrals or a primitives of f(x) with respect to x. symbolically we
write this statement as

Keep in mind: (i) f(x) is called integrand.

(ii) is called indefinite integral of 'f' with respect to x.
(iii) c is called constant of integration.
(iv) x is called variable of integration.
(v) The process of finding integral is called integration.
Note: If h(x) and g(x) be two functions whose derivatives is f(x) in an interval I, then h(x) and
g(x) differ by constant. i.e., If h'(x) = g'(x) = f(x) then h(x) - g(x) = constant
x I. So, represent entire class of anti derivatives of f with respect to x. i.e.,
represents complete family of functions(not definite function) whose derivative
is f(x) that’s why is called indefinite integral of f(x).
e.g., sin x = cos x = sin x + c. where c R is an arbitrary constant.

Standard formulae for Integrals:

(i) cos x + c

(ii) sin x + c

(iii) sec x + c

(iv) cosec x + c

(v) tan x + c

(vi) cot x + c

(vii)

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 (vii)

(viii) x+c

(ix)

(x)

(xi)

(xii)

(xiii)

(xiv)

(xv) co

(xvi)

(xvii
)

Method of Inspection to find an Integral

Following steps we will use to find an integral of function f(x):

Step-I: write the derivative of that function g(x) whose derivative in form of f(x) or some constant
multiple of f(x).
e.g., To Integrate cos 2x with respect to x
We will write step-I as:

Step-II: If derivative is constant k multiple of f(x) i.e. g(x) = k · f(x), then we write derivative of
some multiple of g(x) whose derivative is f(x)

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 some multiple of g(x) whose derivative is f(x)
For above example we will write step-II as:

Step-III: That function whose derivative is f(x) is called integral of f(x)

For above example we will write step-III as: Hence, an integral of

Geometrical meaning of Indefinite Integral

Let f(x) = 2x, then = x2 + c. For different values of c we get different integrals
but these integrals are very similar geomerically.

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 For every integral at any value of x slope of the curve is 2x.

Properties of Indefinite Integral

(i)

(ii) (x)dx
(iii)
e.g.,
(iv) =
e.g., =

where c = c1 c2 so from now onward we will involve arbitrary constant in last.

(v) If . This will be proved using Integration by
substitution technique.
e.g.,

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Questions on Fundamental of Integration

1. Find the value of following

(i)

(ii)

2. Find an anti-derivative of following functions by method of inspection.

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3. If Prove that by method of inspection

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 4. Find the indefinite integrals of following functions:
(i) tan2 x
(ii)

(iii)

(iv)
(v)

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5. If such that then what is the function

6. Prove that when x ≠ 0.

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Integration by Substitution

The given integral can be transformed into another form by changing the
independent variable x to t by substituting g(x) = t ⇒ ⇒
So finally,

e.g.,

If we substitute cos x = t ⇒ ⇒
So,

e.g.,

Let cosec x + cot x = t ⇒

So,

Some Important Substitutions

EXPRESSION SUBSTITUTION
x2 a 2 x = a tan θ or a cot θ

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 x2 a2 x = a tan θ r a cot θ
x2 a2 x = a sec θ r a cosec θ
a2 x2 x = a sin θ r a cos θ
x = a cos 2θ

x= 2θ cos2 θ r r y u d
or
generally we solve by another
method that we will learn later)

Let x = 3 tan θ ⇒ dx = 3 θ dθ

Assume 2sin2 θ θ
⇒ dx = 4sin θ cos θ + 6 cos θ ( θ θ θ
2sin2 θ +3 θ) sin2 θ) 3 θ= θ ...(i)
2
2sin θ +3 θ) sin2 θ 3(1 θ )= θ ...(ii)

Divide equation (i) by (ii)

θ ⇒ cot θ θ
Multiply equation (i) and (ii),
sin2 θ θ⇒ θ θ

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Some Important Formulae

Some Rules for Integration of Particular Forms

can be easily converted into the forms, from which we can integrate using above formulae.
e.g.,

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 In these forms break the px + q in two parts as A·
i.e., px + q = A(2ax+b) + B take this as an identity not as an equation, So we equate individual coefficients of x and
constant terms to find the value of A and B. So break integrand in two parts
and find the integrals individually.
e.g.,

Let I

Let
⇒ 6A = 5 and
⇒A=
⇒B=
So ,

⇒I

Let
⇒ (6x+2)dx = dt
So,

= log |t|+c
= log

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 = log |t|+c
= log

Hence,

So,

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Case: I (m and n are odd
nonnegative integer)
Substitute any of the two
trigonometric function but
generally substitute that
trigonometric functions which
have more exponent.
e.g.,
Let sin x = t ,then cos x dx = dt.
Case: II (one of m or n is odd positive Case: III (m and n are even nonnegative
and other is even nonnegative integer )
integer )
Substitute that trigonometric Convert the trigonometric functions in form of
functions which have even exponent multiple angle.
e.g., e.g.,
Let cos x = t ,then sin x dx = dt.

Step-I:
In whichDivide theb,numerator
all of a, and denominator
c are not simultaneously byto zero..
equal
Step-II: Convert in denominator if any.
Step-III: substitute by then integral become in the form which we have already discussed.
e.g.,

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So,

In which both of a, b are not simultaneously equal to zero.

Step-I: Use the formulae cos x = and which is/are required.

Step-II: Take the LCM in denominator and send to the numerator.
Step-III: Substitute and finally it will be converted in form which we have already
discussed.

e.g.,

Let
So,

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 In which both of a and b and both of p and q are not simultaneously equal to zero.
Let as an identity. So
equate the coefficient of cos x, sin x and constant term to find the values of A,B and C. Now separate the integral
in three parts and continue.
e.g.,

Let as an identitity
⇒

Put in rest of the equations.

⇒ ⇒
⇒ ⇒
and
So,

Let

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Hence,

Step-I: Divide the numerator and denominator by

Step-II: Convert the denominator in in the form to find first integral and in form to find
second integral.
Step-III: Substitute to find first integral and to find second integral.

Let

So,

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Break these integral forms in two parts as

and follow the previous rule to find integrals.

So,

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So,

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Questions on Integration by Substitution
1. If Prove that by substitution.

2. Prove that .

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3. Prove that

4. Integrate the following functions with respect to x:

(i) 2x sin (ii)

(iii) (iv)

(v) (vi)
(vii) cot x log (sin x) dx (viii) sin 3x cos 4x
(ix) (x)
(xi) (xii)

(xiii) (xiv)
(xv) (xvi)

(xvii) (xviii)

(xix) (xx)

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5. Find the value of following Integrals

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6.

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 Integration by Partial Fractions

Rational Functions:
The ratio of two polynomial function is called rational function is in the form where and are
polynomials in and , those are of two types.
(i) Proper rational function: when the degree of numerator is less than degree of denominator then that
rational function is called proper rational function.
(ii) Improper rational function: when the degree of numerator is greater than or equal to degree of
denominator then that rational function is called improper rational function.
To find the integral of improper rational function we first convert it in the form of sum of polynomial
function and proper rational function by long division method. If is quotient and is the remainder,
then

Improper
Proper Polynomial Rational
Rational Function Function
Function

Rules to find integral of Improper rational functions:

To find the integral of improper rational function we break this as sum of simpler improper rational
function by method called partial fraction decomposition using the table below:

S. No. Improper rational function Partial fraction

1

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7

Here A, B and C are constant to be determined by equating improper rational function with
corresponding partial fraction form.
e.g.,

So,

Equating the coefficient of , and constant term in both sides, we get

and
From equation put in rest of the two equations.

Subtract equation from

Put in equation

Put in equation

Put
i.e., put and
and

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 So,

e.g.,

As integrand is improper rational function so we convert it in the form of sum of polynomial function and
improper rational function by long division method.

Hence,

Now integrand is proper rational function so we convert it in simplerpartials fractions form as:

Equate the coefficients of x and constant terms in both sides.

and
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 and
Subtract:
So,

Hence,

Substitution only for partial fraction

To find the integral of the forms

We substitute only for partial fraction not for the integration part.
e.g.,

Substitute only for partial fraction

partial fraction of

Equating the coefficients of t and constant terms

Subtract:

So,

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Substitution for partial fraction as well as integration part

To find the integrals of following forms:

We substitute for partial fraction as well as for the integration part.

e.g.,

Let sin

Partial fraction of

equating the coefficients of t and constant terms in both sides

Since, is always positive

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Questions on Integration by Partial Fractions
Sunday, September 20, 2020 6:34 PM

1. Find the value of following integrals

2.

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Integration by Parts

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Questions on Integration by Parts
Sunday, September 20, 2020 6:32 PM

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