Lecture Notes 1: Integral Concepts

Lecture Notes 1: The Integral 1
Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan
TOPICS
I. Anti-Derivative
II. Indefinite Integral and the u-Substitution
III. Simple Applications of Indefinite Integral
IV. The Sigma Notation
V. Area under a Graph
VI. The Definite Integral
VII. The Fundamental Theorem of the Integral Calculus
VIII. Standard Integration Formulas
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, the students should be able to:
1. Explain and discuss by examples anti-derivative of simple functions.
2. Evaluate indefinite integral of functions by the chain rule (u-substitution) method.
3. Evaluate definite integral of functions using the sigma notation.
4. Describe area under the graph of functions, the Riemann sum and the definite integral.
5. Determine the definite integrals of functions using the fundamental theorem of calculus.
6. Derive standard integration formulas based from the derivatives of transcendental functions.
7. Evaluate the integrals of transcendental functions using standard integration formulas.
I. ANTI-DERIVATIVE
A. Definition
A function F is said to be an anti-derivative of a function f if F'(x) = f(x) on some interval.
Example 1:
Given f(x) = 2x. The anti-derivative F(x) is x2 since F'(x) = 2x.
There is always more than one anti-derivative of a function. For instance, in the foregoing example,
F1 (x ) = x 2 − 1 and F2 (x ) = x 2 + 10 are also anti-derivatives of f(x) = 2x since F1' (x ) = F2' (x ) = f (x ) .
Indeed, if F is an anti-derivative of a function f, then so is G(x) = F(x) + C, for any constant C. This is
a consequence of the fact that
d
G' (x ) = F (x ) + C  = F ' (x )+ 0 = F ' (x ) = f (x )
dx
Thus, F(x) + C stand for a set of functions of which each member has a derivative equal to f(x).
Example 2:
Show that F1(x) = x3, F2(x) = x3 + 1, and F3(x) = x3 -  are anti-derivatives of f(x) = 3x2. How about the
function G(x) = x3 + C, where C is any constant?
Theorem 1
If G'(x) = F'(x) for all x in some interval [a, b], then
G ( x )= F ( x )+ C (1)
for all x in the interval.
B. Indefinite Integral Notation

For convenience, let’s introduce a notation for an anti-derivative of a function. If F'(x) = f(x), we shall
represent the most general anti-derivative of f by
 f (x ) dx = F (x ) + C (2)
which is read “the indefinite integral of f(x) with respect to x equals F(x) plus C.”
▪ The symbol  is called an integral sign, and the notation  f(x) dx is called the indefinite integral
of f(x) with respect to x.
▪ The function f(x) is called the integrand.
▪ The differential dx reminds us that the integration is performed with respect to the variable
x.
▪ The function F is an antiderivative of f, and the constant C is called a constant of
integration.
▪ The process of finding an anti-derivative is called anti-differentiation or integration.
C. The Indefinite Integral of a Power

If n is a rational number, then, for n  -1
x n+1
 x dx = +C
n
(3)
n+1
Examples:
Evaluate:
x x   dx
6 −4
1. dx 2. dx 3. x dx 4.
Solutions
1. Here, n = 6
x 6 +1 x7
 x dx = +C = +C
6
6+1 7
2. n = -4
x −4+1 x −3 1
 x dx =
−4
+C = − +C =− 3 +C
−4 + 1 3 3x
3. n=½
x 1/2+1 x 3/2 2
 x dx =  x 1/2 dx =
1/2+1
+C =
3/2
+ C = x 3/2 + C
3
4. n = 0 (that is, x0)

x 0+1
 = +C = x +C
0
x dx
0+1
Theorem 2: Properties of Indefinite Integral

1. If F'(x) = f(x) and G'(x) = g(x), then
  f (x )  g(x )dx =  f (x )dx   g(x )dx (4)
= F (x )  G (x ) + C
2. If F’(x) = f(x), then

 k  f (x )dx = k  f (x )dx (5)
for any constant k.
Examples
I. Evaluate the integral.
1. (
x −1 / 2 + x 4 dx ) 2. 
27 t 3 − 1
3
dt
t
Solutions:
1. 4
( −1/2 4
)
 x + x dx =  x dx +  x dx
−1/2
=  x −1/2 dx +  x 4 dx
x −1/2 + 1 x 4+1
= + +C
−1 / 2 + 1 4 + 1
x 1/2 x 5
= + +C
1/2 5
x5
= 2 x 1/2 + +C
5
27t 3 − 1 27t 3 1
2.  3
t
dt =  3
t
dt −  3 dt
t
3
t 1
= 27  1/3 dt −  1/3 dt
t t
= 27  t 3−1/3 dt −  t −1/3 dt
t 8/9 + 1 t −1/3 + 1 t 17/9 t 2/3
= 27 − + C = 27 − +C
8 / 9 + 1 −1 / 3 + 1 17 / 9 2 / 3
27 ( 9 ) 3 2/3 243 17/9 3 2/3
= t 17/9 − t +C= t − t +C
17 2 17 2
II. Solve the following problems.

1. The point (3, 2) is on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve the tangent line has a slope
equal to 2x – 3. Find the equation of the curve.
Solution:
dy
Using the definition of slope: m= = f (x)
dx
We are given that at any point (x, y) on the curve the tangent line has a slope equal m = 2x – 3 with
condition that the point (3, 2) is on the curve.
Therefore, formulating the problem:

dy
= m = 2x − 3 with (x = 3, y = 2)
dx
Solving the differential equation, we separate the variables and integrate both sides of the equation:
dy = ( 2 x − 3 ) dx
 dy =  ( 2x − 3) dx
y = x 2 − 3x + C (i)
Equation (i) represents a family of curves. To find a specific curve, we evaluate the constant C from
the given point, (x = 3, y = 2), where the curve passes through. Thus,
2 = 32 − 3 ( 3) + C  C =2
Hence, the equation of the curve is

y = x 2 − 3x + 2 Answer
d2y
2. The points (-1, 3) and (0, 2) are on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve = 2 − 4x .
dx 2
Find an equation of the curve.
Solution:
d2y
We are given a second-order differential equation of a curve = 2 − 4 x , where at any point (x, y)
dx 2
on the curve, points (-1, 3) and (0, 2) satisfies the equation of the curve.
Formulating the problem with the given conditions:
d2y
= 2 − 4x at points (-1, 3) and (0, 2)
dx 2
The order of differentiation implies that we integrate twice in order to find the unknown function.
Note that at each succeeding integration processes, two constants of integration will be created. Thus,
First integration:
d2y d  dy 
dy = = 2 − 4x
dx 2
dx  dx 
 dy 
d  = ( 2 − 4 x ) dx
 dx 
 dy 
 d  dx  =  ( 2 − 4x ) dx
dy
= 2 x − 2 x 2 + C1 (i)
dx
Second Integration:
dy d
= y = 2 x − 2 x 2 + C1
dx dx
(
dy = 2 x − 2 x 2 + C 1 dx )
 dy =  ( 2 x − 2 x )
+ C 1 dx
2
2
y = x 2 − x 3 + C1 x + C 2 (ii)
3
Equation (ii) represents the family of curves. Now, evaluate the value of C1 and C2 using the conditions
for which the curve passes through. Thus,
At point (-1, 3):

2
3 = ( −1 ) − ( −1 ) + C1 ( −1 ) + C2
2 3
3
4
= − C1 + C 2 (iii)
3
At point (0, 2):

2
2=0− ( 0 ) + C1 ( 0 ) + C 2
3
C2 = 2
From (iii),
4
= − C1 + 2
3
2
C1 =
3
Therefore, the equation of the curve is

2 2
y = x2 − x3 + x + 2 Answer
3 3
Classroom Activity 1
I. Evaluate the integral
 (4x − 2x ) y 4 + 2y 2 − 1

1/2
1. + 5 / x 2 dx 2. dy
y
II. Solve the following problems.

d2y
1. At any point (x, y) on a curve, = 1 − x 2 , and an equation of the tangent line to the curve at
dx 2
the point (1, 1) is y = 2 – x. Find an equation of the curve.
d3y
2. At any point (x, y) on a curve, = 2 and (1, 3) is a point of inflection at which the slope of
dx 3
the inflectional tangent is -2. Find an equation of the curve.
3. The volume of water in a tank is V cubic meters when the depth of water is h meters. If the rate
of change of V with respect to h is (4h2 + 12h + 9), find the volume of water in the tank when
the depth is 3 m.
Exercises 1:
I. Evaluate the given indefinite integral.
 x dx  10w
3 2
1. 2. w dw
 (2 )
r − 10
3.  r dr 3
4. t − t − 9 / t 2 dt
( ) 2 x3 + 8
5. x − 1 dx 6.  x +2
dx
x −1 − x −2 + x −3  5 2 
7.  x2
dx 8.  
3 2
 s
+
s3
ds


II. INDEFINITE INTEGRAL AND THE u-SUBSTITUTION
A. The Chain Rule

Theorem 3: Indefinite Integral of the Chain Rule
If F is an anti-derivative of f, then
 f g(x )g' (x )dx = F g(x ) + C (6)
Proof:
By the chain rule
d
F g(x ) = F ' g(x ) g' (x )
dx
= f g(x ) g' (x )
Hence, from the definition of an anti-derivative

f g(x ) g' (x ) dx = F g(x ) + C

x n +1
In particular, if F (x ) = , n a rational number, and if u = g(x) is a differentiable function,
n +1
then
F g(x ) =
g(x )n +1 and
d
F g(x ) = g(x ) g' (x )
n
n +1 dx
Hence,
g(x ) n+1
 g(x ) g' (x )dx = +C

n
(7)
n+1
On a practical level, it is often helpful to change the variable in an integration problem by employing
the substitution
u = g(x) du = g'(x) dx
Thus, if n is a rational number and u = g(x) is at differentiable function, then for n  1
u n+1
 u du = n + 1 + C
n
(8)
Examples:
Evaluate the following integrals.
x
1.  2 6 dx
(
4x + 3 )
 ( 7 − 2x )
4
3
2. 3
x 2 dx
1 dx
3.  1+
3x x 2
Solutions:
x
1.  (4x 2
+3 )6
dx
 ( 4x ) ( x dx )
−6
2
+3
u = 4x 2 + 3 n =−6
1
du = 8 xdx  du = x dx
8
Substituting:
1  1 −6
 ( 4x ) ( x dx ) =  u
−6
 8 du  = 8  u ( du )
−6
2
+3
 
−6 + 1
1 u 1
= +C =− +C
8 −6 + 1 40u 5
Bringing back the original variable
x 1
 dx = − +C Answer
( 4x + 3) ( )
6 5
2
40 4 x 2 + 3
 (7 − 2x ) x dx
3 3 4 2
2.
 (7 − 2x ) ( ) (x )
4 4/3
3 3
x 2 dx =  7 − 2 x 3 2
dx
u = 7 − 2x 3 n =4 / 3
1
du = − 6 x 2 dx  - du = x 2 dx
6
Substituting:
 1 
 (7 − 2x ) ( x )
4/3
3 2
dx =  u 4/3  − du 
 6 
1 1 u 4/3 + 1
= −  u4/3 du = − +C
6 6 4 / 3+1
1 4 7/4
=− u +C
67
2
= − u7/4 + C
21
Therefore,
2
 3 (7 − 2x ) ( )
4 7/4
3
x 2 dx = − 7 − 2x 3 +C Answer
21
1 dx
3.  1+
3x x 2
1/2
1 dx  1  dx
 1+
3x x 2
= 1 +
 3x 

x2
1
u =1 + n =1 / 2
3x
−3dx dx dx
du = =-  -3du =
( 3x )
2
3x 2 x2
Substituting,
1/2
 1  dx
  1 + 3x  2
=  u1/2 ( −3 du )
x
u1/2 + 1
= − 3 u1/2 du = − 3 +C
1 / 2+1
2
= − 3 u 3/2 + C = − 2u 3/2 + C
3
Therefore,
3/2
1 dx  1 
 1+
3x x 2
= − 21 +
 3x 
 +C Answer
 (x )
1 3
 (
2
1. dx 3. + 2 x dx
x 1+ x
2
)
t x 3 + 1 dx
2.  t +3
dt 4.  x3 x4
B. Indefinite Integrals of Trigonometric Functions

If u = g(x) is a differentiable function, then
 cos u du = sinu + C  sec u du = tanu + C  sec u tanu du = sec u + C

2
(9)
 sinu du = − cos u + C  csc u du = − cot u + C  csc u cot u du = − csc u + C
2
Examples:
1 + cos 4t
1.  3 cos 3x dx 4.  2 dt
 sec (1 − 4x )dx  3 cos 3x dx
2 2
2. 5.
 2 csc 2y dy  cos 2x sin 2x dx

2 4
3. 6.
Solutions:
1.  3 cos 3x dx
u = 3x
du = 3 dx
 3cos 3 x dx =  cos u ( 3 du ) = sin u + C

= sin 3 x + C
Answer:  3cos 3x dx = sin 3x + C
 sec (1 − 4x )dx
2
2.
u = 1 − 4x
1
du = − 4 dx  − du = dx
4
 1 
 sec (1 − 4x ) dx =  sec ( u )  − 4 du 
2 2
1
=−  sec 2 ( u ) du
4
1
= − tan u + C
4
1
= − tan ( 1 − 4 x ) + C
4
1
 sec (1 − 4x ) dx = − 4 tan (1 − 4x ) + C
2
Answer:
 2 csc
2
3. 2y dy
u = 2y
du = 2 dx
 2csc
2
2y dy =  csc 2 2 y ( 2dy ) =  csc 2 u du
= − cot u + C
= − cot 2 y + C
 2csc 2 y dy = − cot 2 y + C
2
Answer:
1 + cos 4t
4.  2
dt
1 + cos 4t 1
 dt =  ( 1 + cos 4t ) dt
2 2
1 1
=  dt +  cos 4t dt
2 2
1 11
cos 4t ( 4dt )
2 24
= t+
1 1
= + sin 4t + C
2 8
1 + cos 4t 1 1
Answer:  2
dt = + sin 4t + C
2 8
 3 cos
2
5. 3 x dx
Formulas for the indefinite integral of trigonometric functions do not apply. Hence, to
circumvent the difficulty of evaluating the integral, we use an identity that will transform the
cosine function. Thus, the identity for cosine is
1 + cos2
cos2  =
2
The integrand can now be written as
1 + cos6 x 3
 3cos
2
3 x dx = 3 dx =  (1 + cos6 x ) dx
2 2
3 3 31
(1 + cos 6 x ) dx = x +  cos 6 x ( 6 dx )
2 2 26
3 1
= x + sin 6 x + C
2 4
3 1
 3cos 3x dx = x + sin6x + C
2
Answer:
2 4
 cos
4
6. 2 x sin 2 x dx
The given integrand is a product of functions. Thus, the indefinite integral for trigonometric
functions do not apply.
The power formula can be extended to this problem by identifying that sin 2x dx comes from
the derivative of cos 2x. Hence,
2 x sin 2 x dx =  ( cos2 x ) sin 2 x dx

4
 cos
4
Using the chain rule

1
 ( cos 2 x ) ( cos 2 x ) ( −2sin 2 x dx )
4 4
sin 2 x dx = −
2 
1 ( cos 2 x )
4 +1
=− +C
2 5
1
= − cos 5 2 x + C
10
1
 cos 2 x sin 2 x dx = − cos 5 2 x + C
4
Answer:
10
 (2 + tan  )d
1

2
1. sin x dx 3.
10
2. (
 4 sec x tan x − 2 sec x dx
2
) 4.  (1 − cot x )dx
2
Exercises 2:
I. Evaluate the given indefinite integral.
dx 1
1. (5x + 1)3
11.  sec(5x + 1) dx
z
2. 3 2
z +9
dz 12  sec x (sec x + tan x )dx
 (4x ) (x − 2)dx
4 sin 2θ
 cos θ d
2
3. − 16x + 7 13
(
s s3 − 4 ) cos 3 1 − 3 x
4.  5
s − 10s + 6 2
ds 14.  (1 − 3x )
3 2
dx
2+3 x (1 + sin x )4
5.
 x
dx 15.  sec x + tan x dx
ydy
  (csc θ cot θ − 3 sec θ )dθ
2
6. 16.
5−y
t sin t
7.  t +2
dt ( hint : t = t + 2 − 2) 17.  4 + cos t
dt
4z + 3 1 − 2 cot 2 x
8.  (4z + 5) 3
dz 18.  cos 2 x
dx
x3 cos 2 x
9.  1 − 2x 2
dx 19.  cos x − sin x dx
(r 1/3
+2 ) dr
4
cos 
10.  3
r2
20.   sin 2 
d
II. Application Problems

1. Find a function f so that f ' ( x ) = 1 / x and f(9) = 1.
2. Find a function f such that f''(x) = 1, f'(-1) = 2 and f(-1) = 0.
3. Find a function f whose graph passes through the point (, -1) that also satisfies f'(x) =1 –sin
x.
4. Find the function given that the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at any point [x, f(x)]
is x2 – 2x + 3 and the graph of f passes through the point (1, 2).
5. Find the function given that the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at any point [x, f(x)]
is x2 – 2x + 3 and the graph of f passes through the point (1, 2).
6. Find the function f given that it satisfies f''(x) = 36x2 + 24x and its graph has a horizontal
tangent line at the point (0, 1).
7. For the first 10 days in December a plant cell grew in such a way that t days after December 1
the volume of the cell was increasing at a rate of (12 – t)-2 cubic micrometers per day. If on
December 3 the volume of the cell was 3 m3, what was the volume on December 8?
8. The cost of a certain piece of machinery is $700, and its value is depreciating with time
dV
= −500(t + 1 ) , where V dollars is its value t years after its
−1
according to the formula
dt
purchase. What is its value 3 years after its purchase?
III. THE SIGMA NOTATION
A. Definitions
An integral is either indefinite or definite. Later on, we shall see that the definite integral is defined as
the limit of a certain kind of sum. Therefore, it is helpful to introduce a special notation that enables
us to write an indicated sum of constants such as 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n; 22 + 42 + … + (2n)2; and 1/3 + ¼
+ … + 1/2n-1 in a concise manner.
Let ak be a real number depending on an integer k. We denote the sum a1 + a2 + … + an by the symbol
n
a
k =1
k (10)
where:
 = Greek letter sigma = sigma notation or summation notation
k = index of summation = “dummy” variable
n
The sum a
k =1
k is read “the sum of ak where k runs from 1 to n.”
Note:
The index of summation need not start at the value k = 1. However, it is better to start at k =
1 for convenience rather than necessity!
For instance:
10 9 10 10 10
 (2k − 1) =  (2k + 1)
k =1 k =0

k =1
4k = 
j =1
4j = 4
i =1
i
Examples:
Write each of the following sums in expanded form:
5
1.  k =1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
k =1
10
2. k
k =1
2
= 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 + 62 + 7 2 + 82 + 92 + 102
n
1 1
3.  n ( 2k − 1 ) = n  2(1) − 1 + 2 ( 2 ) − 1  + ... + 2 ( n ) − 1  
k =1
5
   2   3   4   5 
4.  sin  4  = sin 
k =1 4  + sin  4
 
 + sin  4
 
 + sin  4 
  
Write each of the following sums in expanded form:
20 n 3
1  k 1
1.  (k + 1)
k =1
2
3.  1 +   
k =1  n n
n −1
 k 
15
2.  (− 1)k k 3
k =1
4.  sin 
k =1

n 
B. Rules of Summation
Theorem: Properties of the Sigma Notation

n n
1. 
k =1
c  ak = c a
k =1
k , where c is any constant
n n n
2.  (ak  bk ) =  ak   bk
k =1 k =1 k =1
n m n
3. 
k =1
ak = 
k =1
ak + a
k = m +1
k , m < n, for positive integers m and n.
4. If k  1, then
b b+ c
a.  k =  (k − c )
k =a k =a + c
b b −c
b.  k =  (k + c ) ;
k =a k =a −c
where k = a + c = a – c = 1
Examples:
Use the rules of summation to expand each sum:
10 10
1.  3k 2 = 3  k 2
k =1 k =1
8 8 8
2.  ( k + 3k ) =  k + 3 k
k =1
3
k =1 k =1
3
17 17 − 2 15
 1+ j =  1 + ( j + 2) =  1 + ( j + 2)
2 2
3. 2
j =3 j = 3− 2 j =1
C. Summation Formulas
n 2 (n + 1)
n n 2
1.  c = nc
k =1
4.  k3 =
4
k =1
n
n(n + 1) n
n(n + 1)(6n 3 + 9n 2 + n − 1)
2. k =
k =1 2
5. k4 =
k =1 30
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
3.  k 2 =
k =1 6
“Telescoping Sum”
 F (i ) − F (i − 1) = F (n) − F (0 )
n
i =1
Examples:
Find the value of the given sum.
 (k )
20 5
 2k 2 2
1. 3. +1
k =1 k =1
( )
30 400
2. k
k = −30
2
4.
k =1
k − k −1
Solutions:
1. Using formulas 1 and 2:
20 20
 2k = 2  k
k =1 k =1
 20 ( 20 + 1 ) 
=2  
 2 
= 420
2. The lower index of summation is not equal to 1. Therefore, use rule 4-a first in order to
reduce it to 1.
10 10 + 4
k  ( k − 4)
2
2
=
k =−3 k =−3 + 4
Expand the summation term.

14
 (k
k =1
2
− 8k + 16 )
Apply simultaneously formulas 1, 2 and 3, we obtain
30 14
 (
k 2 =  k 2 − 8k + 16 )
k =−30 k =1
14 14 14
=  k 2 − 8  k +  16
k =1 k =1 k =1
14 ( 14 + 1 )( 28 + 1 ) 14 (14 + 1 )
= −8 + 16 ( 14 )
6 2
= 1,015 − 840 + 224
= 399
3. Expand the summation term
5 5
 (k ) ( )
2
2
+ 1 =  k 4 + 2k 2 + 1
k =1 k =1
Apply the rules of summation and formulas 1, 3 and 5.

5 5
( ) ( )
2
k 2 + 1 =  k 4 + 2k 2 + 1
k =1 k =1
5 5 5
=  k 4 + 2 k 2 + 1
k =1 k =1 k =1
(
5 ( 5 + 1 ) 6  5 + 9  52 + 5 − 1
3
) + 2  5 ( 5 + 1 )(10 + 1 ) + 5 1
= ()
30 6
= 979 + 110 + 5
= 1,094
4. Apply the “telescoping” formula

f (k ) = k
f (k − 1) = k − 1
Therefore,
( )
400
k − k − 1 = 400− 0 = 20
k =1
Find the value of the given sum.
 (2i )
10 1 00
1
1.
i = −1
3
− 5i + 3 3.  k(k + 1)
k =1
 (p )
10 10
2.  (k + 1)
k =1
4.
p =0
3
+4
Exercise 4
I. Rewrite the sum using sigma notation. Do not evaluate.
1. 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + … + 60
2. 21 + 22 + 23 + … + 210
3. 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + … + 23
1 2 3 4 8
4. + + + + ... +
5 5 5 5 5
  1    2   3   4   5 
5. 2  + 1 + 2  + 1 + 2  + 1 + 2  + 1 + 2  + 1
 5   5   5   5   5 
 1  2
  1   2  2
  1   3  2
  1   4  2   1 
6.   − 1   +   − 1   +   − 1   +   − 1  
 4    4   4    4   4    4   4    4 
  1 3   1    2 3   1    3 3   1    n 3   1 
7. 2  − 1   + 2  − 1   + 2  − 1   + ... + 2  − 1  
  n    n    n    n    n    n    n    n 
 0  1   1  1   2  1   n −1   1 
8.  + 1   +  + 1   +  + 1   + ... +  + 1  
 n   n   n   n   n   n   n   n 
II. Use the rules of summation and the summation formulas to evaluate the sum.
10 n 2
1  k
1.  (2k + 1) 9.  1 + 
k =1 k =1 n  n
10 3
k3  5 
 k (k − 2)
5
2. 10. 
k =1 225
+ k 
 k =1 
k =1
10 2
 7  k3
 k(2k + 1)
7
k  − 
2
3. 11.
k =1  k =1  k =1 4
n
 (10 − 10i )
n
4.  (2k + 1)2
k =1
12.
i =1
i +1
 (3 − k )  ( n − ( n − 1) )
8 10
2 4 4
5. 13.
k =1 n =1
n
1
(2 − 2 j −1 )
m
6.  n 2 (2k + 1)
k =1
14.
j =1
j
1 1 
n 2m
7.  4i ( i − 2)
i =1
2
15.   i − i + 1 
i =m
 3i (i 2 + 2)  (3 − 3k ) − ( 3k −1 − 3− k +1 ) 
25 n
−k 2 2
8. 16.
i =1 k =1

III. Evaluate the limit after first finding the sum (as a function of n) using the summation formulas.
n n
2k 1
1. lim 2 4. lim 
3
(2k + 1)2
k =1 n k =1 n
n → n → 
n
k  3   n
 k   2 
2
2. lim
n →
  + 2  
k =1  n  n 
5. lim
n →

k =1 

1 + 2    
 n    n 
2 n
n
 2k   1   2k − 1   1 
3. 
lim  1 +   
n  n
6. lim
n →
  1 +  
2n   n 
k =1 
n →
k =1
IV. AREA UNDER A GRAPH
As the derivative is motivated by the geometric problem of constructing a tangent to a curve, the
historical problem leading to the definition of a definite integral is the problem of finding area.
Specifically, we are interested in finding the area A of a region bounded between the x-axis, the graph
of a non-negative function y = f(x) defined on some interval [a, b], and a) the vertical lines x = a and
y = b or b) the x-intercepts of the graph. We shall call this area, simply, the area under the graph f.
Consider now the problem of finding the area A under the graph of a continuous function y = f(x) on
interval [a, b].
The area A can be approximated by adding the areas of n rectangles as follows:

1. Partition the interval [a, b] into n subintervals [xk - 1, xk] where x0 = a, xn = b, and
a = x0 < x1 < x2 < … < xn - 1 < xn = b.
2. Denote the length of each subinterval by xk, where xk = xk – xk – 1. The subintervals are not
necessarily of the same length.
3. Choose any number x k* in each subinterval.
( )
4. Form the product f x k* x k . This represents the area of a rectangle on the kth subinterval.
Form the sum  f (x )x

n
*
5. k k . This is the sum of the areas of the n rectangles and represents an
k =1
approximation to the value of A.
Definition of the Concept of Area under a Graph

Let f be continuous on [a, b] and f(x)  0 for all x in the interval. We define the area A under
the graph on the interval to be
 f (x )Δx
n
A = lim *
k k (11)
Δxk →0
k =1
In a practical sense, when using the formula above, we do two things:

1. Partition the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length. Since (b – a) is the total length
of the given interval, then x = (b – a)/n is the length of each of the n intervals.
2. Choose the xk* to be the right endpoint of each subinterval. Thus, if x0 = a, then
b−a
x 1* = x 0 + x = a +
n
b−a
x 2* = x 0 + 2x = a + 2 
 n 

b−a
x k* = x 0 + kx = a + k  
 n 

b−a
x n* = x 0 + nx = a + n =b
 n 
b−a b−a
It follows, by substituting a + k   for xk and
*
for x in the formula that the area A is also
 n  n
given by
n
 b−a b−a
A = lim
Δxk →0
 f  a + k
k =1

n  n
(12)
n
 b−a b−a
= lim  f  a + k 
k =1  n  n
n →
To illustrate the use of (12), let us find the area under the graph of the given function on the indicated
interval.
1. f (x ) = x 2 , [0, 2]
Solution:
n
 b−a  b−a
A = lim  f  a + k 
n →
k =1  n  n
a, b = 0, 2  a = 0, b = 2 b−a 2−0 2

= =
f ( x ) = x2 n n n
Therefore,
 b−a   2  2k 
f a+k = f 0+k = f 
 n   n  n 

2
 2k 
= 
 n 
Hence, the area is computed as

n
 b−a  b−a
A = lim  f  a + k 
n →
k =1  n  n
2
n
 2k  2 n
 4k 2  2
= lim     = lim   2  
k =1  n  n n → k =1  n  n
n →
8 n
8  n ( n + 1 )( 2n + 1 ) 
= lim
n → n 3
k 2
n → n 3
= lim

6

k =1  
4 2 n + 3n + n 4
3 2
 3 1 
= lim 3
= lim  2 + + 2 
3 n → n 3 n →
 n n 
4 8
A = ( 2 ) = square units
3 3
2. f (x ) = 4 − x 2 , [−1, 2]
Solution:
a, b =  −1, 2  a = − 1, b = 2 b−a 2+1 3
= =
f ( x ) = 4 − x2 n n n
Therefore,
 b−a   3  3k 
f a+k  = f  −1 + k  = f  −1
 n   n  n 
2
 3k 
=4− −1
 n 
Hence, the area is computed as

n
 b−a  b−a
A = lim  f  a + k 
n →
k =1  n  n
n   3k 2  3 3  n  k k 2  
= lim  4 −  − 1    = lim    3 + 6 − 9 2  
  n   n n → n  k =1  n n  
n →
k =1 
3 n 6 n 9 n 
= lim 3  1 +  k − 2  k 2 
n → n n k =1 n k =1
 k =1 
3  6 n ( n + 1 ) 9 n ( n + 1 )( 2n + 1 ) 
= lim 3n + − 2 
n → n n 2 n 6
 
Taking the limits give the required area.

  1  9 1  1 
A = lim 9 + 9  1 +  −  1 +  2 +  
n →
  n  2  n  n
A = 9 + 9 − 9 = 9 square units
V. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL
 f (x )x
n
*
Sum such as k k for various partitions [a, b] are known as Riemann sum and are
k =1
named after the famous German mathematician Georg Friedrich Benhard Riemann (1826-1860).
The Riemann sum does not require that f be either continuous or nonnegative on the
 f (x )x
n
*
interval [a, b]. Thus, k k does not necessarily represent an approximation to the area
k =1
under a graph. Keep in mind that “area under a graph” refers to the area bounded between the
graph of a nonnegative function and the x-axis. If f(x) < 0 on [a, b], a Riemann sum could contain
 ( ) ( )  f (x )x
n n
terms f x k* x k , where f x k*  0 . In this case the products *
k k are numbers that are the
k =1 k =1
negatives of the areas of rectangles drawn below the x-axis. Therefore, if the Riemann sums
 f (x )x
n
*
k k are close to a number L for every partition P of [a, b] for which the norm P is close to
k =1
zero, we then write
 f (x )x
n
*
lim k k =L
P →0
k =1
and say that L is the definite integral of f on the interval [a, b]. If the limit exists, the function f is said
to be integrable on the interval [a, b].
Definition of the Definite Integral

Let f be a function defined on closed interval [a, b]. Then the definite integral of f from a to b,
b
denoted by  a
f ( x ) dx , is defined to be
 f (x )Δx
n
f (x )dx = lim
b

*
k k (13)
a P →0
k =1
The numbers a and b in the preceding definition are called the lower and upper limits of integration,
respectively. Note that a definite integral need not be an area!
Geometric Interpretation of the Definite Integral

The positive (negative) terms in the Riemann sum are associated with the areas of the rectangles that
lie above (below) the x-axis.
As f gets larger and larger, the sums of the areas of the rectangles lying above the x-axis seem to give
a better and better approximation of the area of the region lying above the x-axis. Similarly, the sums
of the area of the rectangles lying below the x-axis seem to give a better and better approximation of
the area of the region lying below the x-axis.
This observation suggests that we interpret the definite integral

b n
 f (x )dx = lim  f (c ) Δx
k k
a n →
k =1
as a difference of areas. Specifically,

b
 f (x )dx =
a
area of S 1 − area of S 2 + area of S 3
where S2 is the region lying above the graph of f and below the x-axis.
More generally,
areas of the regions above  a, b  − areas of the regions below a,b 
b
 f ( x ) dx =
a
Properties of the Definite Integral
Theorem 1:
b
If f is continuous on [a, b], then  f(x) dx
a
exists; that is, f is integrable on the interval.
Theorem 2:
Let f and g be integrable functions on [a, b]. Then
 k f (x )dx = k  f (x )dx , where k is any constant.

b b
1.
a a
  f (x )  g(x )dx =  f (x )dx   g(x )dx

b b b
2.
a a a
 f (x )dx =  f (x )dx +  f (x )dx , where c is any number in [a, b].

b c b
3.
a a c
The independent variable x in a definite integral is called a dummy variable of integration. The value
of the integral does not depend on the symbol used. In other words
 f (x )dx =  f (r )dr =  f (s )ds

b b b
(14)
a a a
Theorem 3:
For any constant k
 k dx = k  dx = k (b − a )
b b
a a
Theorem 4:
1. If f(a) exists, then
 f (x ) dx = 0
a
2. If f is integrable on [a, b], then

f (x ) dx = −  f ( x ) dx
a b

b a
Theorem 5: Symmetry of Integration

1. If f is odd on [-a, a], then
 f (x ) dx = 0
a
(15)
−a
2. If f is even on [-a, a], then
 f (x )dx = 2  f (x )dx
a a
(16)
−a 0
Examples:
Evaluate the following integrals using symmetry considerations
  (x )
/4  /4
  (x + sin 2x )dx
2
1. 2. − 2 x + sin x + cos 2 x dx
− /4 − /4
  (1 + x )
 /3
2
− cos x dx
3 t3
3. − /3
4. −3 1 + t 2
dt
Solutions:
 /4
1.   (x + sin 2x )dx
− /4
 /4  /4  /4
  ( x + sin 2x ) dx =  
− /4 − /4
x dx + 
− /4
sin 2 x dx
=0
  (x )
 /4
2
2. − 2 x + sin x + cos 2 x dx
− /4
  (x ) ( x + cos 2 x ) dx +  ( − 2 x + sin x ) dx
 /4  /4  /4
2
− 2 x + sin x + cos 2 x dx =  2
− /4 − /4 − /4
= 2  ( x + cos 2 x ) dx + 0
 /4 2
0
 /4
 x3 
=2 + 2sin 2 x 
 3 0
 3   3
=2 + 2sin  = +4
 3 ( 64 ) 2  96

  (1 + x )
 /3
2
3. − cos x dx
− /3
  (1 + x ) (1 + x )
 /3  /3
2
− cos x dx = 2  2
− cos x dx
− /3 0
 /3
 x3 
= 2 x + − sin x 
 3 0
 3  
= 2 + − sin 
 3 81 3 
 3 3 
= 2 + −
 3 81 2 
 
3 t3
4. −3 1 + t 2
dt
3 t3
−3 1 + t 2 dt = 0
VI. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS
The First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus

Let the function f be continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and let x be any number in [a, b].
If F is the function defined by
x
F (x ) =  f (t )dt (17)
a
Then
d x
f (t )dt = f (x )
dx a
F’(x) = f(x)  (18)
Proof:
Consider two numbers x1 and x1+x in [a, b].
x1
F (x 1 ) =
 f (t )dt a
x1 + x
F (x + a ) = 
1 f (t )dt
a
So that
x1 + x x1
F (x 1 + x ) − F (x 1 ) =  f (t )dt −  f (t )dt
a a
Also
x1 + x x1 x1 + x
 f (t )dt =  f (t )dt +  f (t )dt
a a x1
x1 + x x1 x1 + x
 f (t )dt −  f (t )dt =  f (t )dt
a a x1
By the mean-value theorem for integrals

x1 + x
 f (t )dt = f (c ) x
x1
Therefore
F (x 1 + x ) − F (x 1 ) = f (c ) x
F (x 1 + x ) − F (x 1 )
= f (c )
x
F (x 1 + x ) − F (x 1 )
lim = lim f (c )
x →0 x x →0
Since c is any point between x1 and x1+x,

lim x 1 = x 1 and lim (x 1 + x ) = x 1
x →0 x →0
Therefore, by the squeeze theorem

lim f (c ) = x 1
x →0
Hence,
F ' (x 1 ) = f (x 1 )
Generally,
F ' (x ) = f (x )
Examples:
Evaluate the derivative of the following:
d x 1
1. 
dx 1 t 3 + 1
dt
1
f (t ) =
t +1
3
Then,
d x 1 1

dx 1 t + 1
3
dt = 3
x +1
d x2
dx 3
2. cos t dt
By the chain rule:

du
u = x2 = 2x
dx
Then,
d x2 d u du
dx 3
cos t dt =
du 3
cos t dt 
dx
= cos t  ( 2 x )
= ( 2 x ) cos x 2
d 2x 1
3.
dx 
x 1 + t2
dt
Choose the lower limit = constant, say 0. Then

d 2x 1 d x 1 d 2x 1 d 2x 1

dx x 1 + t 2
dt = 
dx 0 1 + t 2
dt + 
dx x 1 + t 2
dt = 
dx 0 1 + t 2
dt
1 2
2 ( )
= 2 =
1 + (2x ) 1 + 4x 2
d x3 1
4.
dx 
0 1+t
dt
By the chain rule:

du
u = x3 = 3x 2
dx
Then,
d x3 1 d u 1 du

dx 0 1 + t
dt = 
du 0 1 + t
dt 
dx
1
=
1+u
3x 2 ( )
3x 2
=
1 + x3
Exercises 6
Compute the derivative.
d 3 d x d x 1
1.
dx x 
1 + t 4 dt 2. 
dx 0
4 + t 2 dt 3.
dx 
2 4
t +4
dt
4.
d
dx 
x
−x
( )
cos t 2 + 1 dt 5.
d x2
dx 0
1
2
t +1
dt 6.
d sin x 1

dx 3 1 − t 2
dt
7.
d
dx 
4
tan x
sin t 2 dt 8.
d x
dx − x
( )
cos t 2 + 1 dt 9.
d 2x
dx tan x
t 1 + t 2 dt
The Second Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus

Let the function f be continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and let g be a function such that
 f (t )dt = g(b ) − g(a ) .

b
g’(x) = f(x), for all x in [a, b]. Then
a
Proof:
Consider
x
 f (t )dt = F (x )
a
F ' (x ) = f (x )
It follows that
g( x ) = F ( x ) + k
x
g( x ) =  f (t )dt + k
a
b
Let x = b: g(b ) =  f (t )dt + k
a
a
Let x = a: g(a ) =  f (t )dt + k
a
Therefore,
b a
g(b ) − g(a ) =  f (t )dt −  f (t )dt
a a
b
 f (t )dt = g(b) − g(a ) = g(x )
b
a
(19)
a
Examples:
Evaluate the definite integrals.
 ( 3x )
3
1. 2
+ 5 x − 1 dx
−1
Solution:
3
( )
3 5
2
3x +5x-1 dx= x + x 2 -x 3
-1 2 -1
5
=  3 3 - ( -1 )  +  3 2 - ( -1 )  -  3- ( -1 ) 
3 2
  2 
=28+20-4=44
 /2
2. 
0
sin 2 x dx
Solution:
1 π/2
sin 2x ( 2dx )
π/2
0
sin 2x dx =
2 0
1 π/2
=- cos 2x 0
2
1 1
= -   =1
2 2
5
3. 
−2
x − 3 dx
Solution:
( x − 3)
 if (x - 3)  0 or x  3
x −3 =
- ( x − 3)
 if (x - 3) < 0 or x < 3
5 3 5

−2
x − 3 dx =  x − 3 dx +  x − 3 dx
−2 3
( 3 − x ) dx + 3 ( x − 3) dx
3 5
=
−2
3 5
 1  1 
=  3x − x 2  +  x 2 − 3x 
 2  −2  2 3
 9   25  9 
=  9 −  − ( −6 − 2 )  +  − 15  −  − 9  
 2   2  2 
29
=
2
1
4. 
−1
x − x dx
Solution:
x if x  0
x =
- x if x < 0
1 0 1

−1
x − x dx = 
−1
x − x dx + 
0
x − x dx
0 1
= − x − x dx +  x − x dx
−1 0
− x ( − dx ) +
0 1
=− 2  0 dx
−1 0
2 0 2
2 (−x)
3/ 2
=− = 2
3 −1 3
 ( x + 2)
3
5. x + 1 dx
0
Solution:
Using change of variable:
Let u = x +1
Then
x = u2 −1
dx = 2 du
When x = 0, u = 1
x = 3, u = 2
Therefore:
 ( x + 2) (
x + 1 dx =  u 2 + 1 u ( 2u du ) )
3 2
0 1
( )
2
= 2  u 4 + u 2 du
1
2
2 2
= u5 + u3
5 3 1
 64 16   2 2 
= +  − + 
 5 3  5 3
62 14 256
= + =
5 3 15
Exercises 7
Evaluate the definite integrals.
3 1
1. 1
x dx 7. −3
x dx
 (3x − x + 1)dx
2 4

2
2. 8. 2 x − 6 dx
−2 0
1 2
3.  x dx
−3
9. 
0
x 2 − 1 dx
 /2 1 + cos   /2 1 + cos 
4.  ( + sin )
/6 2
d 10.  ( + sin )
/6 2
d
1 1  /3
5. 1/4 x
dx 11.  /6
sin x cos x dx
3/2
 (x − cos x )dx
4
6. −3
x + 2 dx 12.
−1 / 2
VII. STANDARD INTEGRATION FORMULAS
A. Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
Formulas 1:
du
1.  u
= ln u + C (20)
au
2.  a du = u
+ C, a  0, a  1 (21)
ln a
e du = e u + C
u
3. (22)
Examples:
sec 2 
 d  a e dt
t t
1. 5.
tan 
1 + cos y
  a (ln z + 1)dz
z ln z
2. dy 6.
y + sin y
2x 2 + 5x + 1
3.  32 y dy 7.  x +2
dx
2 + ex e x − e −x
4.  ex
dx 8.  x
e + e −x
dx
Solutions:
sec 2 
1. tan 
d :
u = tan du = sec2  d
du sec 2 
 u = ln u + C :  tan d = ln tan + C
1 + cos y
2.  y + sin y dy
u = y + sin y du = (1 + cos y ) dy
du (1 + cos y ) dy = ln
 u = ln u + C :  ( y + sin y ) + C
y + sin y
3
2y
3. dy
u = 2y du = 2 dy a =3 0
au 1 2y 1 32 y
 a du =  3 dy = ( )
2
u
+C: 2y
3 2dy = +C
lna 2 ln 3
2 + ex
4.  ex
dx
2 + ex  2 
 e x dx =   e x + 1  dx
 ( 2e )
−x
= + 1 dx
= 2e −x
dx +  dx
= 2e −x
dx + x
u=− x du = −dx a =e
e du = e u + C
u
2 + ex
 e x dx = 2  e dx + x
−x
= − 2  e − x ( −dx ) + x
= − 2e − x + x + C
 a e dt
t t
5.
 ( ae ) dt
t
Rewrite the integral as
u =t du = dt a = ae
( ae )
t
au
  ( ae ) dt = ln ( ae ) + C
t
au
du = +C:
lna
 a (ln z + 1)dz
z ln z
6.
u = z ln z du = ( ln z + 1 ) dz a =a
au a z ln z
 a du = +C:  a ( ln z + 1 ) dz = +C
u z ln z
lna ln a
2x 2 + 5x + 1
7.  x +2
dx
Since the degree of the numerator is higher than the degree of the denominator, divide the
numerator by the denominator.
2x 2 + 5x + 1 2
= x +2−
x +2 x +2
Therefore,
2x 2 + 5x + 1  2 
 x + 2 dx =   x + 2 − x + 2  dx
( x + 2)
2
dx
= − 2
4 x +2
( x + 2)
2
= − 2 ln ( x + 2 ) + C
4
e x − e −x
8.  e x + e −x
dx
u = e x + e− x (
du = e x - e − x dx )
du e x − e− x
 u = ln u + C : (
 e x + e− x dx = ln e + e + C
x −x
)
Simplify the answer:
e x − e−x  x 1  e2 x + 1
 e x + e−x dx = ln 

e + 
ex 
+ C = ln
ex
+C
( )
= ln e 2 x + 1 − ln e x + C
= ln ( e 2x
+ 1) − x + C
sin(ln x )
9.  x
dx
dx
u = ln x du =
x
dx
 sinu du = − cos u + C :  sin ( ln x ) x
= − cos ( ln x ) + C
dx
10.  x ln x
dx
u = ln x du =
x
du dx / x
 u
= ln u + C :  ln x
= ln ( ln x ) + C
dx
11. e x
+1
Transform the integrand.

1 1 1 / ex 1 / ex e− x
=  = =
ex + 1 ex + 1 1 / ex 1 +1 / ex 1 + e− x
dx e − x dx
Therefore,  e x + 1  1 + e− x
=
u = 1 + e− x du = − e − x dx
du dx −e − x dx
 u = ln u + C : (
 e x + 1  1 + e − x = − ln 1 + e
= − −x
)+C
Simplify the integral.
dx
 e x + 1 = − ln ( 1 + 1 / e ) + C
x
 1 + ex 
= ln  x  + C
 e 
( )
= ln 1 + e x + ln e x + C
= ln ( 1 + e ) + x + C
x
e2x
12.  ex + 1
dx
Since the degree of the numerator in terms of exp is higher than the degree of the denominator,
divide the numerator by the denominator.
e2 x ex
= e x
−
ex + 1 ex + 1
e2 x  x ex 
Therefore,  e x + 1   e x + 1  dx
dx = e −
du

Using e u du = e u + C and  u
= ln u + C :
e2 x  x ex 
 e x + 1   e x + 1  dx
dx =  e −
( )
= e x − ln e x + 1 + C
Formulas 2:
1.  tanu du = − ln cos u + C (23)
2.  cot u du = ln sin u + C (24)
3.  sec u du = ln (sec u + tanu) + C (25)
4.  csc u du = ln (cscu − cotu) + C (26)
Examples
Evaluate the integrals.
1. 
x sec x 2 dx
u = x2 du = 2 x dx
 sec u du = ln (sec u + tanu) + C :

1 1
 x sec x
2
dx =
2  2
( )
sec x 2 ( 2 xdx ) = ln sec x 2 + tan x 2 + C
dx
2.  sin 2x
dx
 sin2x =  csc 2x dx
u = 2x du = 2dx
 csc u du = ln (cscu − cotu) + C :

1 1
 csc 2x dx = 2  csc 2x (2dx ) = 2 ln ( csc 2 x − cot2 x ) + C
e
x
3. cot e x dx
u = ex du = e x dx
 cot u du = ln sin u + C :  cot e ( e dx ) = ln sin ( e ) + C

x x x
B. Integrals Giving Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Formulas:
du u
1.  a2 − u2
= sin −1
a
+C (27)
du 1 u
2. a 2
+u 2
= tan−1 + C
a a
(28)
du 1 u
3. u u −a2 2
=
a
sec −1 + C
a
(29)
Examples:
dx
1. 1 + 25 x 2
2x - 3
2.  dx
1 - x2
dx
3.  1 − 6x − x 2
Solutions:
dx
1.  1 + 25 x 2
a2 + u2 = 1 + ( 5 x )
2
a =1
u = 5x  du = 5 dx
du 1 u
a 2
+u 2
= tan−1 + C
a a
dx 1 5dx
 1 + 25 x 2
= 
5 1 + ( 5 x )2
11 5x 1
= tan −1 + C = tan −1 ( 5 x ) + C
51 1 5
2x − 3
2.  1 − x2
dx
2x − 3 2x 3
 1−x 2
dx = 
1−x 2
dx + 
1 − x2
dx
dx
( ) ( −2 x dx ) dx + 3 
−1/2
= −  1 − x2
1 − x2
u n+1 du u

Using u n du =
n+1
+ C and  a2 − u2
= sin −1
a
+C
2x − 3 dx
( ) ( −2x dx ) dx + 3 
−1/2
 1−x 2
dx = −  1 − x 2
1 − x2
(1 − x )
−1/2 +1
2
x
=− + 3sin −1 +C
−1 / 2 + 1 1
( )
1/2
= − 2 1 − x2 + 3sin −1 x + C
dx
3.  1 − 6x − x 2
By completing the square:

1 − 6x − x 2 = 1 − x 2 − 6x + 9 + 9 ( )
= 10 − ( x − 3 )
2
( )
2
− ( x − 3)
2
= 10
Therefore,
dx dx
 =
1 − 6x − x
( )
2 2
− ( x − 3)
2
10
( )
2
+ ( x − 3)
2
a2 − u2 = 10
a = 10
u=x −3  du = dx
du u
 a2 − u2
= sin −1
a
+C:
dx dx x −3
 = = sin −1 +C
1 − 6x − x
( ) 10
2 2
− ( x − 3)
2
10
C. Integrals of Hyperbolic Functions
Formulas:
1.  cosh u du = sinh u + C (30)
2.  sinh u du = cosh u + C (31)
 sech u du = tanhu + C
2
3. (32)
 csch u du = − cothu + C
2
4. (33)
5.  sechu tanhu du = − sech u + C (34)
6.  cschu cothu du = − cschu + C (35)
Examples:
 sinh 8x dx  cosh
2
1. 4. x sinh x dx
csc h 2 x
2.  cosh(5x − 1)dx 5.  x
dx
x
2
3. sec h 2 x 3 dx
Solutions:
1.  sinh 8 x dx
 sinh u du = cosh u + C
u = 8x du = 8 dx
1
 sinh8x dx = 8  sinh (8x )(8dx ) = cosh (8x ) + C
2.  cosh(5x − 1)dx
 cosh u du = sinh u + C
u = 5x − 1 du = 5dx
1 1
 cosh ( 5x − 1 ) dx = 5  cosh ( 5x − 1)( 5dx ) = 5 sinh ( 5x − 1 ) + C
x
2
3. sech 2 x 3 dx
 sech u du = tanhu + C
2
u = x3 du = 3x 2 dx
1 1
x
2
sech2 x 3dx =
3  ( )
sech2 x 3 3x 2dx = tanh x 3 + C
3
 cosh
2
4. x sinh x dx
x sinh x dx =  ( cosh x ) sinh x dx

2
 cosh
2
u n+1
 u du = +C
n
n+1
u = cosh x du = sinh xdx n =2
1
x sinh x dx =  ( cosh x ) sinh x dx = cosh 3 x + C
2
 cosh
2
csch 2 x
5.  x
dx
 csch u du = − cothu + C
2
dx
u= x du =
2 x
csch 2 x dx
 x
dx = 2  csch 2 x
2 x
= − coth x + C
D. Integrals of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Theorem:
(
sinh −1 x = ln x + x 2 + 1 ) coth−1 x =
1  x + 1
ln  x 1
2  x −1
(
cosh−1 x = ln x + x 2 − 1 ) x 1 1
sech−1 x = ln +
1− x2 
 0  x 1
x x 
 
1  1+ x  1 1+ x2 
tanh−1 x = ln  x 1 −1 
csch x = ln +  x0
2  1− x  x x 
 
Derivatives:
d 1 du d −1 du
sinh −1u = csch−1u = u0
dx u 2 + 1 dx dx u 1 + u 2 dx
d 1 du d − 1 du
cosh−1u = u 1 sech−1u = 0  u 1
dx u − 1 dx
2 dx u 1 − u 2 dx
d 1 du d 1 du
tanh−1u = u 1 coth−1u = u 1
dx 1 − u 2 dx dx 1 − u 2 dx
Integrals:
du u
 u +a
2 2
= sinh−1 + C
a
(36)
du = cosh−1 u + C
 u2 −a2 a
u a 0 (37)
1 −1 u
du  a tanh a + C u a
 a2 − u2 =  (38)
 1 coth−1 u + C u a
 a a
Using logarithms:

du
u +a
2 2
(
= ln u + u 2 + a 2 + C ) (39)

du
u −a
2 2
(
= ln u + u 2 − a 2 + C ) u a 0 (40)
 1 a+u
du  2a ln a − u + C u a
 a2 − u2 =  (41)
 1 ln u + a + C u a
 2a u − a
Examples:
r
 x sec x 1−r
2
1. dx 6. 2
dr
dx
e x
x
2. cot e x dx 7. 2
+ 6x − 8
dx
3.  z tan z
2
dz 8.  x (ln x ) 2
−1
dx xdx
4.  sin 2x 9. 1−x 4
sin t dx
5.  2 − sin 2 t
dt 10.  x 2 + 2x
Hyperbolic Identities
sinh (-x) = -sinh x cosh (-x) = cosh x
cosh2x – sinh2x = 1 coth2x – 1 = csch2x
cosh x + sinh x = ex tanh2x= 2tanhx/1+tanh2x
sinh 2x = 2sinhx coshx cosh 2x = cosh2x + sinh2x

= 2cosh2x – 1
= 2sinh2x + 1
Exercises 8
2
e ln x e2 dx xe 6 x
1. 1 x
dx 2. 
e x (ln x )
2 3.
 2
dx
1 + e 6x
10 ln x 10 x + 1
 (x + 1)e 7
x

x xe
4.
 x
dx 5. dx 6.
10 x − 1
dx
2 x dx ln 2 e2x e2 dx
7.  3  2x + 4
8. 
0 ex − 5
dx 9.  x(ln x )
e
−2 dt sin x dx ds
10. −4
− t 2 − 6t − 5
11.  2 − cos 2 x
12.  2s − s 2
3 xdx 1dx e dx
13. 0
1+x 2
14. 
0 e + e −x
x
15.  1 
x 1 + (ln x )
2

1 dx  6 sec 2 x dx 2 (t + 2)
16. 1/ 2
x 4x − 1 2
17. 
0 1 + 9 tan 2 x
18.  1
4t − t 2
dt
dx dx
 
1
19.
e 2x
−8
20. 
0
1 + cosh y dy 21.
7 + 5x − 2x 2
dx (2 + x )dx x dx
22.  (1 + x ) x
23.  4 − 2x − x 2
24. x 2
+ x +1
dy dt
25.  9e y
+ e −y
26.  2t 2
+ 3t + 5
27.  tanh
2
3x dx
4 x −3 + 2 8 x1/3
e
1/2 y y
 
y
28. dx 29. dx 30. 2 e 3 e dy
1/3 x −2 − x 1 x 4/3 + 4
References
[1] Larson, R., & Edwards, B. (2018). Calculus with CalcChat and CalcView (11th ed.). Boston,
Massachusetts, USA: Cengage Learning.
[2] Leithold, L. (n.d.). The Calculus with Analytical Geometry. Harper Collins.
[3] Stewart, J. (2008). Calculus: Early Transcendentals (6th ed.). Belmont, California, USA: Thomson
Learning Inc.
[4] Tan, S. T. (2011). Single Variable Calculus: Early Transcendentals. Belmont, California, USA: Cengage
Learning.
[5] Zill, D. G., & Wright, W. S. (2011). Calculus: Early Transcendentals (4th ed.). Sudbury, Massachusetts,
USA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

Lecture Notes 1: Integral Concepts

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Lecture Notes 1: The Integral 1

Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

for all x in the interval.

B. Indefinite Integral Notation

C. The Indefinite Integral of a Power

4. n = 0 (that is, x0)

Theorem 2: Properties of Indefinite Integral

2. If F’(x) = f(x), then

II. Solve the following problems.

Therefore, formulating the problem:

Hence, the equation of the curve is

Formulating the problem with the given conditions:

At point (-1, 3):

At point (0, 2):

Therefore, the equation of the curve is

II. Solve the following problems.

II. INDEFINITE INTEGRAL AND THE u-SUBSTITUTION

A. The Chain Rule

 f g(x )g' (x )dx = F g(x ) + C (6)

Hence, from the definition of an anti-derivative

 g(x ) g' (x )dx = +C

Thus, if n is a rational number and u = g(x) is at differentiable function, then for n  1

B. Indefinite Integrals of Trigonometric Functions

 cos u du = sinu + C  sec u du = tanu + C  sec u tanu du = sec u + C

 2 csc 2y dy  cos 2x sin 2x dx

 3cos 3 x dx =  cos u ( 3 du ) = sin u + C

Answer:  3cos 3x dx = sin 3x + C

The integrand can now be written as

2 x sin 2 x dx =  ( cos2 x ) sin 2 x dx

Using the chain rule

II. Application Problems

III. THE SIGMA NOTATION

Theorem: Properties of the Sigma Notation

Expand the summation term.

3. Expand the summation term

Apply the rules of summation and formulas 1, 3 and 5.

4. Apply the “telescoping” formula

IV. AREA UNDER A GRAPH

The area A can be approximated by adding the areas of n rectangles as follows:

Form the sum  f (x )x

Definition of the Concept of Area under a Graph

In a practical sense, when using the formula above, we do two things:

a, b = 0, 2  a = 0, b = 2 b−a 2−0 2

Hence, the area is computed as

Hence, the area is computed as

Taking the limits give the required area.

V. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

Definition of the Definite Integral

Geometric Interpretation of the Definite Integral

This observation suggests that we interpret the definite integral

as a difference of areas. Specifically,

Properties of the Definite Integral

 k f (x )dx = k  f (x )dx , where k is any constant.

  f (x )  g(x )dx =  f (x )dx   g(x )dx

 f (x )dx =  f (x )dx +  f (x )dx , where c is any number in [a, b].

 f (x )dx =  f (r )dr =  f (s )ds

2. If f is integrable on [a, b], then

Theorem 5: Symmetry of Integration

2. If f is even on [-a, a], then

VI. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS

The First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus

By the mean-value theorem for integrals

Since c is any point between x1 and x1+x,