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Steven Errede
LECTURE NOTES 19
LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
(SLIGHT RETURN)
In P436 Lecture Notes 18.5 {p. 18-22} we discussed the tensor algebra method for Lorentz
transformation of the electromagnetic field e.g. in the lab frame IRF(S), represented by the EM
field strength tensor F v to another frame IRF(S'), represented by the EM field strength tensor
F v via the relation:
Analytically carrying out this tensor calculation by hand can be tedious and time-consuming.
If such calculations are to be carried out repeatedly/frequently, we encourage people to code this
up and simply let the computer do the repetitive work, which it excels at.
For 1-dimensional Lorentz transformations (only) there is a simpler, less complicated,
perhaps somewhat more intuitive method. Starting with the algebraic rules for Lorentz-
transforming { E and B } in one IRF(S) to { E and B } in another IRF(S') e.g. moving with
relative velocity v vxˆ with respect to IRF(S):
We can write these relations more compactly and elegantly by resolving them into their and
components relative to the boost direction: here, is along v vxˆ and is perpendicular
to v , defined as follows {n.b in general, v could be e.g. to xˆ , yˆ , zˆ or rˆ }:
E E v c
E E v B E c B 1 1 2
B B
1 1
B B 2 v E B E
c c
Now since v vxˆ {here} then: E Ex , B Bx and: B By yˆ Bz zˆ , E E y yˆ Ez zˆ
{and similarly for corresponding quantities in IRF(S')}.
Since v vxˆ and E Ex then: v E v Ex xˆ 0
And likewise, since B Bx then: v B v Bx xˆ 0 .
Thus, we can {safely} write: v E v E and v B v B , as long as v is always
to one of the components of E and B - e.g. xˆ or yˆ or zˆ .
E E v c
E E v B E c B v c
B B
1 1
B B 2 v E B E 1 1 2
c c
This can be written more compactly in 2-D matrix form as:
EM Fields: “Normal” 4-Vector:
E E
For a general Lorentz transformation (i.e. no restriction on the orientation of v {arbitrary}):
A.) Lorentz transformation from IRF(S) → IRF(S'):
2
E E c B
1
E
v c v c
1
2
B B E
c 1
B 1 1 2
Or:
1
E 1 E
cB cB
1
1
operator matrix
We also need to express and J in terms of the proper charge density 0 = volume charge
density defined in the rest frame of the charge Q, IRF(S0).
The infinitesimal rest volume / proper volume = V0 {defined in the rest/proper frame IRF(S0)}
1 1 u
Then: V V0 where: V0 0 w0 d 0 and: V wd , where: u and: u
u 1 2 c
u
If the Lorentz transformation is along (i.e. || to) the length , 0 of the infinitesimal volumes
1
Then: 0 and the components of the volumes are unchanged: w0 w , d 0 d .
u
1 Q Q
Then if: V V0 → u u 0 J u u 0u 0 u u
u V V0
d
Recall that the 3-D vector associated with the proper velocity is: u u J 0
d
dx 0 dt
The zeroth (i.e. temporal/scalar) component of the proper 4-velocity is: c uc
0
d d
The corresponding zeroth (i.e. temporal/scalar) component of the current density 4-vector J is:
J 0 0 0 0 u c u 0 c c c
The current density 4-vector is: J J , J c , J c , J x , J y , J z (SI units: Amps/m2)
0
0
Then: J 0 0 , 0 where: , u c, u u u c, u u c, u x , u y , u z
0
2 2 1 u2 2
c u
J J J J 02 02 u2 c 2 u x2 u y2 u z2 02 c c c 2
2
1 u 2 0 1 u 2 0
2 2
u 2
c c
Yes, J J J J is a Lorentz invariant quantity!
The 3-D continuity equation mathematically expresses local conservation of electric charge
(using differential vector calculus):
r , t
J r , t r , t = scalar point function, J J r , t = 3-D vector point function
t
xˆ yˆ zˆ (in Cartesian coordinates)
x y z
3
J i J 0 J 0 3 J i 3
J J
Then: J
t
J
t
0 0 0 i 0 =
0 x
0
x
i 1 x x x i 1 x
i
J
Thus: J or J 0 0 Continuity equation (local charge conservation)
t t x
J
Physically, note that is the 4-dimensional space-time divergence of the current density
x
J
4-vector J c , J . The 4-current density J c , J is divergenceless because
x
0.
The 4-vector operator is called the 4-D gradient operator, (a.k.a the quad operator
x
or “quad” for short). However, because the 4-D gradient operator functions like a covariant
x
4-vector, e.g. when it operates on contravariant J (or any other contravariant 4-vectors), it is
often alternatively given the shorthand notation . Similarly, because the 4-D
x
gradient operator functions like a contravariant 4-vector, e.g. when it operates on
x
covariant J (or any other covariant 4-vectors), it is given the shorthand notation .
x
{See/work thru Griffiths Problem 12.55 (p. 543) for more details.}
1
The contravariant quad/gradient 4-vector operator: ,
x c t
1
The covariant quad/gradient 4-vector operator: ,
x c t
2 1 2
Then:
2 2
x x x x x x c t
2 2
J
J J 0 n.b. A Lorentz-invariant quantity!!!
x
Electric charge is (locally) conserved in any/all IRF’s (as it must be!!!)
F v G v
v F v o J and: vG v 0
x v x v
1 F v F 0 v
1) Gauss’ law E . If μ = 0 in: v F
v
J
, i.e. F 0v
o J 0 , v = 0:3
o x v
o v
x v
F 0 v F 00 F 01 F 02 F 03
Then: 1 2 3 μ = 0 (first row of F v )
x v x 0 x x x
Row #
0 Ex c E y c Ez c
v Ex c 0 Bz By
F
E y c Bz 0 Bx
Ez c By Bx 0
Column #
F 0 v 1 Ex E y Ez 1
E and: o J o c
0
0
x 0 c x y z c
1 1 1
E o c or: E o c 2 but: o c 2 E
c o o
Gauss’ law arises from the 0 (scalar / temporal) component of the 4-vector relation:
F v
v F v o J
x v
1 E F v
4) Ampere’s law: B o J 2
v
If 1 in v F o J
c t x v
F 1v F 10 F 11 F 12 F 13
Then: 1 2 3 1 (second row of F v )
x v x 0 x x x
F 1v 1 Ex Bz By 1 E
2 0 2 B and: 0 J 1 o J x
x v
c t y z c t x
F 1v
1 E
B o J x
x v c 2 t x
Then for 2 and 3 (third and fourth rows of F v ), likewise we find that:
F 2 v 1 E F 3v 1 E
B o J y and: B o J z
x v c 2 t y x v c 2 t z
F v 1 E
1:3 o J
1:3 2 B o J
x v c t
Ampere’s law arises from the 1: 3 (3-D spatial / vector component) of 4-vector relation:
1
E ( 0 temporal / scalar component)
v o
F
v F v 0 J
x v 1 E
B 2 o J ( 1: 3 3-D spatial / vector component)
c t
0
o J
1 1 1 E F v
o J E , B 2 o J v v F v
c c o c t x
v G v
2) B 0 no magnetic monopoles / no magnetic charges. If 0 in vG 0
x v
G v
v
0 is the temporal (scalar) component of space-time “null” 4-vector v G
x v
0
0,
0 0
G 0 v G 00 G 01 G 02 G 03
Then: 1 0 0 (First row of G v )
x v x 0 x x 2 x 3
Row #
0 Bx By Bz
Bx 0 Ez c E y c
G
v
By Ez c 0 Ex c
Bz E y c Ex c 0
Column #
0 temporal/scalar component: B 0 2) No Magnetic Charges
v
G
vG v 0
x v
B
1: 3 spatial/vector component: E 0 3) Faraday’s law
t
Since there are 3 indices in the latter equation 0 : 3, v 0 : 3, 0 : 3 , there are actually 64
(= 43) separate equations!!! However, many of these 64 equations are either trivial or redundant.
F 0 and: F F . Thus, 2 indices the same gives the trivial relation: 0 = 0.
Thus, in order to obtain a / any non-trivial result, μ, v, and λ must all be different from each other.
1) The indices μ, v, and λ could all be spatial indices, such as: μ = 1 (x), v = 2 (y), λ = 3 (z)
(or permutations thereof).
Or:
2) One index could be temporal, and two indices could be spatial, such as:
μ = 0, v = 1, λ = 2 (or permutations thereof), or: μ = 0, v = 1, λ = 3
1) For the case(s) of all spatial indices, e.g. μ = 1, v = 2, λ = 3:
Since v is a rank-four tensor (= 4-dimensional “matrix”) we can’t write it down on 2-D
paper all at once! v has (μ, v, λ, σ = 0:3) → 44 elements = 256 elements!!!
We could write out 16 {44} matrices – e.g. one μ-v matrix for each unique combination of λ and σ:
0 v 0 v 0 v 0 v
0 (44) 1 (44) 2 (44) 3 (44)
1 v 1 v 1 v 1 v
3 (44)
v 20 (4v 4) 1 (44)
2 v
2 (44)
2 v 2 v
(44)
0 1 (44) 2 (44) 3 (44)
3 v 3 v 3 v 3 v
0 (44) 1 (44) 2 (44) 3 (44)
Define = 4×4 totally anti-symmetric rank-two tensor (aka the 4×4 Levi-Cività symbol):
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
The Minkowski force (a.k.a. proper force) K acting on a point electric charge q can be
written in 4-vector / tensor notation in terms of the EM field strength tensor F v and the proper
4-velocity . Recall that:
dp dp dp
K u u F where the ordinary force: F and: u 1 1 u
2
d dt dt
v
However, we can equivalently write the Minkowski/proper force as: K qv F
where v is the covariant form of the contravariant proper 4-velocity v .
i.e. we contract the EM field strength tensor F v with the covariant proper 4-velocity v .
Since: K u F and: v u uv , where: u 1 1 u and: u u c
2
uv c, u ↔ v u c, u u u uv where: u 1 1 u2 and: u c
Row #
0 Ex c E y c Ez c K0 0 Ex c E y c Ez c 0
1
Ex c 0 Bz By K q Ex c 0 Bz By 1
v
F
E y c Bz 0 Bx K2 E y c Bz 0 Bx 2
3
Ez c By Bx 0 K Ez c By Bx 0 3
Column #
K 1 q u c Ex c u x 0 u y Bz u z By q u Ex u y Bz u z By q u E u B x
K 1 q u E u B x
K q u E u B ← Minkowski 3-D Force law
Similarly, for μ = 2, μ = 3:
K 2 q u E u B y
But: K u F
K 3 q u E u B z
F q E u B ← Lorentz 3-D Force law
For μ = 0 (the temporal / scalar component) {see/work Griffiths Problem 12.54, page 541}:
K 0 q u c 0 u x Ex c u y Ex c u z Ex c q u u E c
0 F 00 1 F 01 2 F 02 3 F 03 v F 0 v
n.b. this relation explicitly shows that Ex , E y , Ez are temporal-spatial (or spatial-temporal)
components of F v , whereas Bx , By , Bz are pure spatial-spatial components of F v !!!
dp 0 1 dE 1 dt dE 1 dE 1 dE
We also know that: K 0 u K 0 q u u E c u
d c d c d dt c dt c dt
dE
or: Pq
dt
q u E = {ordinary} relativistic power delivered to point charged particle (> 0)
dE dW
Pq
dt
q u E qE u F u
dt
=
Time rate of change of work done
on changed particle by EM field
Note: The {ordinary} Lorentz force: F qE q u B
F u q u E q u u B q u E
But: u B
u u u B 0 magnetic forces do no work !!!
with v u uv .
v v
Thus we have the relations: K u F = K qv F and also: F quv F
The EM field strength tensor F v can be written in terms of covariant space-time derivatives
of the 4-vector potential field A as:
Av A
F v Av v A n.b. covariant differentiation here!!
x xv
n.b. We must change the sign of the temporal/scalar component of the covariant derivatives
and v relative to that of the contravariant derivatives and v v .
x xv x x
Explicitly evaluate a few terms: A V c , A
For μ = 0 and v = 1:
A1 A0 Ax V c 1 A 1 A E
F
01
V V x
x0 x1 ct x c t x c t x c
For μ = 1 and v = 2:
Note that the relativistic 4-potential formulation automatically takes care of the
v G v B
homogeneous Maxwell equation vG 0 {it gives B 0 and: E }
x v t
v G v F v Fv F
because v G 0 is equivalent to v 0 .
x v
x x x
{See/read pages 10-11 of these lecture notes – also see/work Griffiths Problem 12.53, page 541}.
v v v
Av A A A
And since: F A A F v Av v A v v
x xv x x
Av A A A A A
=
v v v v v 0
x x x x x x x x x x x x
A A A A A A
= v v v v v v 0
x x x x x x x x x x x x
= Av v v A v v A 0
x x x x
x x
x x x x
x x
0 0 0
But:
i.e. can change the order of differentiation – has no effect!
x x x x
2
2
= 00
x x x x
v
Av A
The relativistic 4-potential formulation F does indeed automatically satisfy
x xv
G v F v Fv F G v
vG v 0 because 0 {shown to be equivalent to 0 }
x v x x x v x v
v
Av A
is satisfied / obeyed for F A A
v v
.
x
xv
v v v
Av A
Does the relativistic 4-potential formulation F A A
x xv
v F v
satisfy the inhomogeneous Maxwell relation v F o J ???
x v
F v Av A 2 Av 2 A
v F v v v o J
x v x v x xv x x x xv
Switching the order of derivatives:
F v Av A
v F v o J
x v x x v xv x v
*
4-vector potential A the space-time gradient of any scalar function λ: A A A !!!
x
The scalar and vector potentials V and A are not uniquely determined by the EM fields E and B .
Thus:
0
A A
v v
F !!!
x
xv
* v v *
F F by A A A is gauge invariance associated with the EM field F v !!!
x
We can exploit the gauge invariant properties of F v to simplify the seemingly intractable relation:
F v Av A
v F v v v o J
x v
x x xv x
1 V 1 V A
Using the Lorenz gauge condition: A A 0
A 0
c 2 t c 2 t x
0 !!
F v
Av A
2 A 2 A
Thus: v F v v v o J
= o J
or: v
v A o J
x v x x xv x xv x v
xv x v
2 2 2 1 2
But: v v v ,
v v
and: v v v v
2 v v v v
2 2
x xv xv x v x v xv c t
D’Alembertian operator (4-dimensional Laplacian operator)
Single 4-vector equation!
2 A
A v A o J =
2
v
o J
= the most elegant and simple formulation of Maxwell’s
xv x v equations – it contains all four of Maxwell’s equations!!
Taken together with the continuity equation (charge conservation): J J 0 , these two
relations compactly describe virtually all of {non-matter/free space} EM phenomena!!!
Note that the choice of the (instantaneous) Coulomb gauge A 0 is a bad one for use in
relativistic electrodynamics, because A {alone} is not a Lorentz invariant quantity!
1 V r , t A r , t
However: A r , t 2 A r , t 0 is a Lorentz invariant quantity
c t x
because it is the product of two relativistic 4-vectors: and A .
x
n.b. A 0 is “destroyed” by any Lorentz transformation from one IRF(S) to another IRF(S') !!!
In order to restore A 0 , one must perform an appropriate gauge transformation for each
new inertial system entered, in addition to carrying out the Lorentz transformation itself !!!
In the Coulomb gauge A is not a “true” relativistic 4-vector, because A A A A
is actually not a Lorentz invariant quantity in the Coulomb gauge !!!
n.b. The Coulomb gauge A 0 is useful when v c , i.e. for non-relativistic problems.