CHAPTER 6

POLYGRAPH INSTRUMENTS

In the interest of detecting deception and verifying the truth, one has thought of developing an
instrument that could record changes in the human body as an indication of truthful or deceptive
responses. The conventional or analog polygraph instruments have been used in the
psychophysiological detection of deception for over the years.
 Three Major Components of Polygraph

1. Pneumograph - designed to detect and record changes in respiration of the subject which consists of
the ff:
1. Rubber Convoluted Tube
About 10 inches corrugated rubber attached to the body of the subject.
2. Beaded Chain
Designed to lock the rubber convoluted tube.
3. Recording Pen Unit
Consists of two 5 inches recording pen
4. Centering Knob
Used to center the pen
5. Sensitivity Knob
Designed to adjust the desired size of tracings
6. Vent
Used to release excess pressure from the system
7. Pneumo Module
Located inside the instrument that receives the reactions detected by the corrugated tube and
moves the pen to record the reactions on the chart
Next
Two Common Placements of the Pneumograph
1. Upper Chest (For Thoracic breathing)
2. Lower Chest, just above the stomach (For Abdominal Breathing)
Two placements are considered because the subjects can be either chest (shallow) or
stomach (deep) breathers and even switch under stress. Generally, men are abdominal
breathers and women are chest breathers. Due to this, most instruments are made with
two pneumo channels to ensure all respiration changes are recorded. If only one pneumo
is used, the pnuemograph tube should be placed in the location of the greatest respiration
movement.
Respiration Recording
Respiration patterns are recorded by attaching a pneumograph (tubular bellows/
convoluted tube) across the subject's chest and/or abdomen. The tubular bellows is
connected by tubing to a pneumo module of the instrument and the system is sealed at
atmospheric pressure. The subject's breathing movement causes the pneumograph to
stretch and contract, resulting in decrease and increase of system pressure. One inhalation
and one exhalation constitute one cycle of breathing.
 Two kinds of Pneumo Modules
1. Electronic Pneumo
2. Mechanical Pneumo
In anelectronic pneumo module , the pressure changes are converted intoelectrical
signal and are used to drive a pen motor. The pen motor moves the pen which traces the
patterns on the chart.
In amechanical pneumo module , the pressure changes are converted to a mechanical
motion, moving the pen which traces the patterns on the chart.
In either type of pneumo module, the pen moves upward when the subject inhales and
downward when the subject exhales.
Pneumo Controls
1. Sensitivity Control (Electronic Pneumo Only)
The sensitivity control adjusts the tracing size on the electronic pneumo. The control
must be set fully counter clockwise when attaching or removing a pneumograph. Rotating
the control clockwise increases tracing size while rotating it counterclockwise decreases
tracing size. A starting pattern size10
ofchart division is suggested. The tracing size of the
electronic pneumo is approximately the same as a mechanical pneumo when sensitivity
control is set at 25.
2. Centering Control
Centering control is used to place the pen in a proper position on the chart. Rotating the
centering control clockwise the pen upward, while rotating it counter clockwise moves the
pen downward.
3. Vent
It is used to release excess pressure on the pneumograph before and after the
operation. In Stoelting instruments, rotating the top until snapped in the raised (closed)
position seals the system. Pressing down and releasing the top momentarily vents the
system while pressing down and rotating the top in either direction, one-quarter turn, opens
the system. The vent will remain in the lower (open) position. In other instrument brands
like Lafayette, rotating the vent control clockwise will open the system while counter
clockwise will close the system.
Pneumo Operation

A. To Initiate Operation
1. Connect the pneumograph tubing to the appropriate connector
2. Switch on the instrument.
3. Rotate vent to open position.
4. Set the sensitivity control fully counter clockwise for electronic module.
5. Have the subject assume correct testing position.
6. Place the pneumograph on the subject.
a. Select either the upper or lower placement or both.
b. Pass the chain around the subject's back.
c. Stretch the pneumograph 1 to 2 inches and slip the chain into the hook on the
end of the pneumograph.
7. Seal the system by rotating the vent to close position.
 8. Set the sensitivity control to 25 (electronic pneumo). Examiner may change the
sensitivity as desired.
9. Position properly the pen on the chart using the centering control.
10. Press the chart switch "on".
11. Adjust the sensitivity (electronic module only) and centering controls to obtain
desired size and position of tracing.
B. To Terminate Operation
1. Rotate the sensitivity control fully counter clockwise for electronic pneumo.
2. Press the chart switch "off".
3. Rotate the vent to open position.
4. Raise the pen lifter.
5. Remove the pneumograph from the subject, if no more test will be conducted.
2. Cardiosphygmograph - it is designed to detect and record changes in the cardiovascular
activity of the subject. It consists of the following:
a. Blood Pressure Cuff - attached to the upper right arm of the subject, above the brachial
artery.
b. Sphygmamonometer - used to indicate the amount of air pressure inflated to the
system. Usually about 60 mm of mercury for male subject.
c. Recording Pen Unit - five (5) inches length
d. Air Pump/Pump Bulb - designed to supply air to the cardio system
e. Cardio Module - located inside the instrument that receives the reactions detected by
the cult and moves the pen to record the reactions on the chart
f. Sensitivity Control - used to adjust the desired size of tracings
g. Centering Control - designed to center the pen on chart
h. Vent - used to release excess pressure from the system >
 
Cardio Recording
Cardio patterns are recorded by wrapping a cuff around one of the subject's arms. The
cuff is connected by tubing to the cardio module. The system is inflated with air to the
desired operating pressure. Cuff pressures ranged from 25 to 150 millimeters of mercury
(mm Hg.).
The subject's blood pulsation causes the pressure within the cuff to rise with
increasing, and fall with decreasing blood volume/pressure. Increasing pressure causes
the pen to rise while decreasing pressure causes it to drop.
Cardiosphygmograph provides a record of the following:
1. Relative Blood Volume/Pressure - is the changes in the average value of the cardio tracing
(waveform) with respect to a baseline.
a. Diastolic Blood Pressure
Refers to the downward blood pressure representing the low pressure to the closing
of the valves and heart relaxed.

b. Systolic Blood Pressure

The upward blood pressure as the apex of the curve caused by the contraction of the
heart, valves are open and blood is rushing into the arteries.

2. Pulse Amplitude
Is the changes in pulse amplitude (tracing height) independent of baseline.
3. Pulse Rate
Changes in heart rate or time between pulses,
4. Dicrotic Notch
Changes in relative position of the dicrotic notch or pulse waveform. Short horizontal
notch in a cardio-tracing located at the middle of the diastolic stem
Two Types of Cardio Module
1. Mechanical Cardio
The pressure changes are converted to a mechanical motion which moves the pen and
traces blood pressure pattern on the chart. It operates over a pressure range of
approximately 60 to 150 mm Hg. and is normally used between 60 to 120 mm Hg.
 
2. Electronic Cardio
The cuff pressure changes are converted to an electronic signal and used to drive a
motor pen. The pen motor moves the pen which traces the blood pressure patterns on the
chart. Since power to drive the pen is supplied by electronics, it can operate over an
extended pressure ranges from 25 to 150 mm Hg.
Cardio Controls
1. Hand Pump (Pump Bulb)
It is used to pressurize the cuff pneumatic system. Squeezing the rubber bulb inflates
the system when the pump bulb thumbwheel vale is fully clockwise. The pinch clamp is
used after inflation to ensure the system is sealed.
2. Sphygmomanometer
It measures the cardio system operating pressure in millimeters of mercury. Each small
division on the dial is 2mm Hg., about the amount of needle movement caused by the
subject's pulse with an upper arm cuff pressurized to 90 mm
3. Vent
Is used to release excess or unnecessary pressure on the cuff before and after inflating
it.
4. Lock Lever
It immobilizes the mechanical cardio mechanism. It should remain in the locked position
until the system has been inflated. It should be in free position when operated and in locked
position again before deflating.
5. Sensitivity Control
It adjusts the tracing size of the electronic pneumo. The control must be set fully counter
clockwise when attaching or removing a subject cuff. Rotating the control clockwise
increases tracing size while rotating counter clockwise decreases it. A starting cardio patter
size of 6 chart division is suggested.
6. Centering Control
It positions properly the cardio pen on the chart. Rotating the centering control clockwise
moves the pen upwards while counter clockwise moves the pen downward.
 
Cardio Operation
A. To Initiate Operation
1. Connect the pump bulb and cuff properly. Open the pinch clam and rotate the thumb
wheel fully clockwise (closed).
2. Rotate the vent to "Open" position
3. If using electronic cardio, rotate the sensitivity control fully counter clockwise. If using
mechanical cardio, check the lock lever if in upper position (locked).
4. Place the cuff on the subject and wrap.
5. Have the subject assume the correct testing position.

6. Seal the system by rotating the vent to "Close position,

7. Inflate the system slightly above the desired operating pressure. Massage the cuff
and re inflate until no decrease.
B. To Terminate Operation
1. Rotate the sensitivity control fully counter clockwise for electronic cardio.
2. Move the lock lever to "Close" position thereby locking the recording mechanism for
mechanical cardio.
3. Press the power switch chart off.
4. Raise the pen lifter.
5. Rotate the vent to "Open" position thereby releasing the cuff pressure.
6. Release the pinch clamp on the hand pump.
7. Remove the cuff from the subjects arm.
3. Galvanograph
Designed to detect and record changes in skin resistance of the subject. It consists of:
a. Finger Electrode Assembly consists of:
a.l. finger Electrode Plate and Retainer Bond - usually attached to the index and ring
finger of the subject. The metal electrodes are placed on the subject's finger tips,
usually on the subject's index and ring finger but it can be attached on any of the
disposable electrodes
fingertips. The are attached on the palm of the subject.
a.2. Connecting Plug - connects the electrodes to the instrument
b. Recording Pen Unit - usually 7 inches long
c. Amplifier Unit - designed to support the galvanometer in converting electrical to
mechanical current.
d. Sensitivity Control - used to adjust the desired size of tracings.
e. Centering Control - designed to center the pen on the chart
f. GSR Module - located inside the instrument that receives the reactions detected by the
finger electrodes and moves the pen to record the reactions on the chart.
 
 GSR Recording
Galvanic skin response is the changes in the body's resistance to the passage of a
minute electrical sensing current.
The electrodes electrically connect the subject to the instrument. This provides a5 micro
amp sensing current to the subject. By turning the sensitivity control, any subject's resistance,
from zero to one million ohms can be balanced out, so that only the changes in the galvanic
skin resistance is displayed on the chart.
The signal produced by the subject's resistance to the sensing current is used to drive a
pen motor. The pen motor moves the pen which traces the GSR patterns on the chart. The
pen moves upward in response to decrease in resistance that normally occurs when the
when the subject is under stress.
GSR Subject Connections
1. For metal plates, center the plates on the tip of the index and ring fingers of the subject
not having the cardio cuff Alternate fingers are recommended to prevent the metal plates
from contacting each other causing erratic recording.
2. Secure the contacts by wrapping the straps tight around the finger. Too tight a wrap will
result in subject discomfort. Too loose a wrap can cause large shifts in the tracing if the
subject moves.
3. If using disposable electrodes, simply attach the two electrodes on the pam of the hand of
the subject which does not have the cardio cuff. Disposable electrodes are designed for
single use only.
4. Normally, the GSR contacts are used dry. If trouble centering is experienced, have the
subject wash his hands with soap and water.
GSR Controls
1. Mode Switch
Two Types of Mode Switch
a. Manual Mode - is the most useful when a stable baseline is experienced. The pen
must be kept on the chart by manually operating the centering control. Using as low a
sensitivity setting as possible will minimize adjustment.
b. Automatic Mode - is preferred to be used when the baseline is unstable. The pen will
automatically return to the reference line following a subject response. Slightly more
sensitivity should be used than in the manual mode.
In either mode, the pen position can be adjusted permit the most effective use of chart
space. When charging modes, the sensitivity control should be fully counter clockwise, and
the pen must be re-centered when resuming operation.
3. Centering Control - it is used to position the GSR pen on its proper location on the chart.
Rotating the control clockwise moves the pen upward while downward when rotating it
counter clockwise.
GSR operation
A. Manual Operation
1. Connect the electrodes cable on the instrument.
2. Set the sensitivity control fully counterclockwise.
3. Set the mode switch to "Man".
4. Attach properly the metal plates or disposable electrodes on the subject's fingertips.
5. Rotate the sensitivity control to 10.
6. Position properly the pen on the chart using the centering control.
7. Press the chart switch "On".
8. Adjust the desired sensitivity and centering controls to obtain the desired size and
position of tracing.
B. Automatic Operation
1. Connect the electrodes cable on the instrument,
2. Set the sensitivity control fully counter clockwise.
3. Set the mode switch to "Man".
4. Attach properly the metal plates or disposable electrodes on the subject's fingertips.
5. Rotate the sensitivity control to 25 and follow steps 6 to 8 above.
C. Terminating Operation
1. Rotate the sensitivity control fully counterclockwise.
2. Press the chart switch "off".
3. Rotate the vent to Open position.
4. Raise the pen lifter.
5. Remove the electrodes from the subject, if no more test will be conducted.
General Operation
1. Initiating a Period of Operation
A. Initial Control Settings - make sure that:
1. All sensitivity controls are full counterclockwise.
2. All vents are in "Open" position.
3. The chart roller lever is down.
4. The pen lifter is fully down.
5. The chart switch is in the "Off" position.
6. For instruments with a mechanical cardio, the lock lever is in the "Lock" position.
B. Apply Power - connect the instrument to a wall outlet. Make sure that the voltage of the
outlet matches the voltage of the instrument. Switch on the instrument.
C. Attach the Sensors - placed the sensors on subject' body properly in the following order:
1. Lower pneumo
2. Upper pneumo
3. Cardio Cuff
4. Finger Electrodes
D. Start the Chart - collecting chart. push the chart button chart
E. Activate the Pneumo (see pneumo operation)
F. Activate the GSR (see GSR operation)
G. Activate the Cardio (see cardio operation)
H. Start Asking Questions
II. Terminating a Period of Operation
A. De-activate the Cardio (see cardio operation)
B. De-activate the GSR (see GSR operation)
C. De-activate the Pneumo (see pneumo operation)
D. De-activate the Pens raise the pen lifter thereby lifting the pens from the chart. It should remain in the
raised position when instrument is not in use to avoid blotting of ink on the chart.
E. Turn Off Chart
F. Remove the Subject's Attachments/Sensors - removing the sensors should be done in the following
order:
1. Finger Electrodes
2. Cardio Cuff
3. Upper pneumo
4. Lower pneumo
G. Turn Off the Instrument switch off the instrument. Always remove the plug from the outlet
power if no succeeding examination will be conducted.
Kymograph - It is a motor that pulls or drives the chart paper under the recording pen
simultaneously at the rate of five seconds per vertical chart division or twelve divisions in one
minute run.it consists of the following:
a. Cutter Bar- used to cut the paper at the end of the examination.
b. Rubber Roller- the one responsible for pulling the paper out of the machine.
c. Pen Table- flat portion where the pen write on the chart.
d. Paper Rail Guide - serves as the security for the unnecessary movement of the chart
paper or to ensure the paper's forward movement without shaking.
e. Synchronous Motor runs the chart paper at the uniform rate speed regardless of the
voltage change.
Pen and Inking System - it provides for the permanent record of the examination
Capillary Ink - a water based ink intended for polygraph instruments.
COMPUTERIZED POLYGRAPH INSTRUMENT
The fast-changing technology of today, where almost everything is converted into digital
formats, greatly influenced the world of polygraphy. In 1992, polygraphy made its official
entrance into the digital world. Today, there are already several companies engaged in the
manufacture/invention of computerized polygraph instruments.
Computerized Polygraph Instrument Manufacturers
1. Lafayette Instrument Company, Inc.
In 1968, Lafayette began to dabble in the sports editing market while sales of physiological
recording instrumentation and related psychology testing apparatus continued to be major
contributors to the company's growth. In 1972, Lafayette built and marketed "The Examiner
Series" polygraph directly to polygraph examiners.
In 1993, Lafayette sold its first computerized polygraph. By 1997, it had fully embraced
computerization, and begun to market its new line of computerized physiological recording
instrumentation as well as its behavioral control and monitoring system.
 The LX4000 computer polygraph system records, stores and analyzes physiological
changes during a polygraph examination. The LX4000 system combines conventional
polygraph procedure with a sophisticated state of the art computer that can record up to
seven channels. It has the same attachments as that of the conventional instrument such as
pneumogaph, finger electrodes and blood pressure cuff which are being connected on the
Data Acquisition System (DAS). The DAS is then connected on the computer or laptop via USB
connection cable. This makes it possible for the instrument to monitor and record the three
systems of the human body such as respiration, cardiovascular activity and skin resistance.
Aside from the three attachments. The DAS has an additional slot for activity sensors and
plethysmograph.
 This instrument requires software installation on the computer where it will be
connected. It has a built-in computer mathematical algorithm making possible for the
computer to evaluate the presence of physiological reactions on the chart and make a
decision of whether truthful or deceptive. This will serve as a guide of the examiner in
decision making, however, in case of conflict, the examiner's decision shall prevail.
The LX5000 records the same reactions as that of LX4000, except that it can record up
to nine channels. It can be used either wired via USB cable connection or wireless via
Bluetooth device.
2. Stoelting Company, Inc.
Stoelting is a diversified company whose major product lines are all related to
physiological, psychological, and psychophysiological measurement. Stoelting's Polygraph
Division has been a pioneer in the field.
Stoelting created their first Cardio-Pneumo Polygraph in 1935, and has since been on the
cutting edge of polygraph technology. The middle part of the twentieth century brought about
many advancement for the Stoelting polygraph. Many prominent polygraph examiners/
their own line of polygraphs made by Stoelting.
schools have chosen to have
 In 1951 the Reid polygraph was introduced. This 5 channel model was capable of
recording signals from arm movements, respiration, GSR, blood pressure, and thigh
movements. In 1958, the Stoelting Deceptograph was standardized by the US military. In
1966, Stoelting created the polygraph with a non-battery powered galvanometer. Stoelting
released the world's first all-electronic polygraph in 1974 - the Stoelting Polyscribe. In 1978,
the Stoelting Ultrascribe was released. This instrument took the polygraph world by storm
with its modular design and allowing three to five user-selected channels. This gave the
examiner more freedom than ever, and he could choose how many channels he wanted, and
upgrades were inexpensive and painless. Then in 1982, the Executive Ultrascribe hit the
market. This smaller, lighter polygraph was a significant improvement in the form factor of
polygraph, and became the official polygraph of the US army.
 The final incarnation of the Ultrascribe was released in 1983, Ultrascribe II. This
instrument provided another revolution to the polygraph world. The Ultrascribe Il featured
microprocessor-controlled recentering. Stoelting continued the evolution of polygraph. With
the arrival of the Computer Aided Polygraph System in 1988 and the Computerized
Polygraph System in 1992, the polygraph entered the digital age. This brought about
unprecedented accuracy, as well as, flexibility.
The Computerized Polygraph System Pro (CPSpro) from stoelting company can record up
to 12 channels and is connected on the laptop or scomputer via USB 2.0 connection which
does not require driver installation. Like Other computerized instruments, it has a built-in
computer mathematical algorithm. It also records and stores data as that of computerized
instruments.
3. Limestone Technologies, Inc.
Limestone Technologies Inc. was inspired during the 1980s by a rich research
environment. Their original business niche was to be the premiere maker of forensic sex
offender assessment tools. More recently, this has blossomed into wider applications,
especially for the Company's Polygraph Professional Suite software and instrumentation.
Limestone's innovative and enriched polygraph instrument took into account the then
increasingly pressing research need of the polygraph industry: the demand to base truth/
deception pronouncements on more factors than conventional polygraph instruments can.
Polygraph Professional Suite of Limestone Technologies can record up to 8 channels. It
has almost the same features like other computerized instruments. What differs is the only
manner of operation
4. Axciton Systems, Inc.
Axciton is another private company engaged in manufacturing computerized
instruments. At present, Axciton Gis producing - 5 and 8-channel instruments. Computerized
instruments from Axciton are also same with others. The instrument records the same
physiological reactions of the human body and have the same attachments like
pneumograph tube, finger electrodes, cardio cuff. plethysmograph, activity sensors, audio/
video recording systems. It is also equipped with a built-in scoring algorithm. Operations are
only the difference among computerized instruments of different brands.
Other Polygraph Instrument Accessories
1. Acivity Sensors - are devices attached to or built into polygraph testing chairs to detect an
examinee's concealed movements. It is composed of the following:
a. Seat Pad - is designed to detect movements of an examinee during a polygraph
examination. By providing a graphic record of subject movement, the activity sensor allows
the polygraph examiner to concentrate on administering the exam instead of trying to
observe the subject's movement. The sensor pouch is located under the seat of the
examinee. As the examinee moves, pressure changes are detected from the pouch.
b. Arm Pads - are utilized to detect movements of shoulders, forearms and hands of the
subject during a polygraph test. The sensors on the chair arms and the subject's arms rest
upon them.
 c. Foot Pads - are utilized to detect movements in the feet and legs of the subject during
a polygraph test. The sensors are placed on the floor in front of a chair, and the subject's feet
rest upon them.
2. Plethysmograph - is a device that measures changes in blood volume on a part of the body.
It is sometimes called PLE
3. Signature and Fingerprint Scanner is another accessory of computerized polygraph
instrument. It allows the computer to scan and record the signature and fingerprint of the
subject that will undergo the polygraph examination. This device is connected directly on the
laptop or computer via USB connection.
4. Webcam for computerized instruments with focus and microphone is used in order to
record the entire polygraph examination with audio and video. Usually, if a result will be
presented in court, a record of examination is a necessary requirement for court
presentation in order for the trial judge to see how examination was conducted.
5. Thermal Printer for computerized instruments is used to print the charts continuously
while doing the examination or after the examination. A desktop printer may be used but
charts will be discontinuously printed which is not advisable for court presentation.
 CHAPTER 7
POLYGRAPH TEST QUESTIONS
 
The formulation of proper test questions that will be asked on the subject is one of the
crucial parts of any polygraph examination. Errors in making decision of truthful or deception
may occur due to poorly constructed questions. Thus, the examiner should be able to
properly formulate the questions to ask on the subject.
Types of Polygraph Test Questions
1. Irrelevant Question - a question that has no connection with the matter under investigation
and deals with known facts that the subject cannot deny. It is designed to be emotionally
neutral question.
neutral to examinees and usually answerable by a "Yes.' Also called
Characteristics of Irrelevant Question
1. It has no connection to the matter under investigation.
2. No threat to subject (usually).
3. Neither innocent nor guilty suspects have reason to lie.
4. Usually about the suspect's background.
5. Generally used at the beginning of polygraph technique to establish a 'norm' for examinee,
or throughout the examination as needed to re-establish norm pattern.
Purposes of Irrelevant Question
1. Establish the professional authority in the room; that means, the examiner asks questions
and the suspect answers.
2. It allows the examiner to assess the subject normal behavior for this heightened
emotional situation.
3. Allows the examiner to identify something he has in common with the subject to establish
rapport
4. It minimizes resistance.
Examples of Irrelevant Questions.
During Interview
- What is your name?
- How old are you?
- Where were you born?

During Polygraph test

- Is your first name ______?
- Where you born in the Philippines?
- Is today ______?
2. Symptomatic Question - is designed to ensure that the examiner will not ask un-reviewed
questions or that the examinee is not afraid that the examiner will ask un-reviewed questions.
Examples:
1. Do you believe me when I promised not to ask a question in this test I have not gone
over word for word?
2. Even though I promised I would not, are you afraid I will ask a question in this test I
have not gone over word for word?
3. Do you understand that I will only ask questions I reviewed?
4 Do you believe i will not ask you questions we have not reviewed?
3. Sacrifice Relevant Question - introduces the relevant question to the subject. This is
designed to absorb the response generated by the introduction of relevant question in the
series. Generally, the subject will react upon hearing the question pertaining to matter
under investigation, thus, this will be eliminated by introducing first the relevant questions.
Example:
 
Ñ Regarding the (matter under investigation), are you willing to answer the questions
truthfully?

4. Relevant Question - a question that deals with the matter under investigation. It is
designed to elicit significant reactions from deceptive subject.
Guidelines in Constructing Relevant Questions
- It must solve a vital problem.
- The issue covered must be of vital importance to the examinee.
- It must pose a dichotomy, answerable by "yes" or "no".
- It must be fully understood and mean the same thing to the examiner and examinee.
- When possible, should not use legal or tech terms.
- It should not contain obscene, profane, a derogatory, degrading or insulting words and
phrases.
- Qualifiers, such as "other than..." are placed the beginning of the question.
- There should be enough facts in the question avoid outside issues.
- There should be no more facts in the question than necessary.
- The facts in the question should not only be correct, but would be recognized as correct by
the perpetrator.
- It should not imply or assume guilt.
‒ It must not imply disbelief by the examiner.
‒ The sentence must be a question.
‒ It is preferable to use action verb rather than the result.
‒ It must not ask for an opinion.
‒ Should avoid questions on the issue of intent.
‒ Be wary of using specific amount of money stolen in the question.
‒ Avoid words that are emotional and likely to cause a response.
‒ Use "that" instead of "the".
Types of Relevant Questions
1. Primary Relevant - addresses the primary or direct involvement of the subject on the
matter under question. Ex. Did you take that missing money?
2. Secondary Relevant - deals with the physical acts that support the primary issue.
Ex. Did you participate in the theft of that missing money?
3. Guilty Knowledge - designed to probe whether the subject possesses information
regarding the identity of the offender or the facts of the case under question.
Ex. Do you know who took that missing money?
 4. Evidence Connecting Question - test question in which the examinee is asked about a
particular piece of physical evidence that would incriminate the guilty person. It could be
items left at the crime scene by the perpetrator or stolen property.
Ex. Do you know where any of that missing money is right now?
The secondary, guilty knowledge and evidence connecting questions are used with the
multiple-facet diagnostic examination.
5. Control Question - a question which is the same in nature with that of the relevant question
but broader in scope. A type of question designed to elicit responses from truthful subject. It
the relevant question. Also known as Comparison
is used for comparative purposes with
Question.
 Types of Control Questions
1. Directed Lie Control Question (DLC) - a comparison question in which the examinee is
instructed by examiner to answer the questions untruthfully. Some examiners actually get
admission to comparison questions and then instruct the examinee to lie to that question
when it is asked.
DLC question may offer some relief to potential problems identified inProbable Lie
Control Question ( PLC). Examiners may experience difficulty in standardizing comparison
questions in the PLC version. Each test subject brings with him his or her own life
experiences that may hamper maintaining a rapport while attempting to lay foundation for
and set the PLC questions.
2. Probable Lie Control Question (PLC) - a question to which it is likely that the examinee is
untruthful with his answer. PLC questions are presented to the test subject as being
necessary for further evaluating the test subject's character and the issue under
investigation. PLC questions are based on transgressions whose subject matter is generally
or conceptually related to the allegations of the examination and which virtually all persons
may have committed, but which are likely to be denied in the context of the examination.
PLC questions are broad in scope and usually based on actions categorically similar to that
of the issue under investigation.
 
Types of Probable Lie
1. Inclusive - a control question which include the relevant time period under investigation. It
was originally designed by Reid. This type of question usually starts with the phrase: "In your
entire life ...”. Also termed as inclusionary. Reid believed that the comparison question should
be as broad and general as possible and would ensure that the subject experienced the
maximum threat, forcing him to lie to a question which he felt might lead the investigator to
believe he was guilty of the relevant act.
2. Exclusive - a control question separated in time, place or category from the relevant
question. It was introduced by Cleve Backster. He believes that this prevents the guilty
suspect from perceiving the comparison question as an ambiguous relevant question. Also
called exclusionary.
Example:
- During the first ___ years of your life, did you ever ___?
- Prior to 2009, did you ever ___?
- While in college ___?
- Between the ages of ___ & ___, did you ever ___?

Control questions commonly used today are “exclusive comparisons" which are
separated from the relevant issue by time, place or category. Comparison questions not
separated the relevant issue are sometimes referred to as non- exclusionary type. If the
test subject makes an admission to a PLC question, the examiner notes that admission
and modifies the comparison question.
 CHAPTER 8
POLYGRAPH TECHNIQUES

At present, there are numbers of polygraph techniques available in the field of polygraphy.
The accuracy of polygraphy rests primarily on the proper application of polygraph technique in
a particular examination.
 
Two Principal Approaches to Polygraph Examination
1. Deception Tests - are the most commonly used approaches, and they include Comparison
Question Technique and Relevant/Irrelevant Questions.
2. Recognition Tests - include the Peak of Tension, Concealed Information and Acquaintance
Tests.
Two Types of Polygraph Examination
1.
Mixed Issue Exam - multiple-issue polygraph testing like screening of applicants or audit
of employees or persons with security clearances.
2.Diagnostic Exam - a test which involves specific case investigation.
 
Types of Diagnostic Examination
1. Single Issue Diagnostic Exam - a test which inquires direct involvement of subject into a
specific case under question. Multi-facet Diagnostic Exam - test format in which the relevant
questions are targeted toward different elements of the same crime.
Types of Polygraph Test/Techniques
1. Relevant-Irrelevant (RI)
2. Peak of Tension Test (POT)
3. Comparison Question Test (CQT)
 
A. RELEVANT-IRRELEVANT TEST (RI)
The RI is consists primarily of the irrelevant and relevant questions presented in a
structured sequence.
 
Brief History
RI have been used in the 1920's and 1930's by polygraph pioneer John Larson. However, it
was fully developed into a recognized testing format by Leonard Keeler. With the addition of
probable lie questions, it forms the basis of the valid testing format. In the 1980's, Paul K.
Minor added questions that were connected to the relevant issue and designed to relieve
normal feelings of guilt, anger, frustration, or concern felt by the innocent examinee. These
questions, referred to as situational controls, formed the basis of Modified RI testing technique.

Forms of RI
1. Relevant-Irrelevant Screening Exam
2. Relevant-Irrelevant Diagnostic Exam
3. Modified Relevant-Irrelevant Diagnostic Exam
Test Questions Constituting RI Screening
1. Relevant Question - see chapter 7. Labelled as 'R".
2. Irrelevant or Neutral - see chapter 7. Labelled as "N".
3. Overall Truth Questions similar in function to a traditional sacrifice relevant question.
Labelled as "T".
Ex. TI - (Do you plan to lie) (Have you lied) to any question on this test?
T2 - (Do you intend to be completely truthful) (have been completely truthful) to all
questions on this test? T3-(Will you answer) (Did you answer) every question in this test
truthfully?
Codes:
N = Norm or Irrelevant Question
R=Relevant Question
T = Overall Truth Questions
C1, C2, C3 = number of charts
* = Optional
( ) = Denotes location for repeating relevant questions that may have been artifacted or
showed reactivity on previous presentations.
Test Questions Constituting RI Diagnostic Exam
1. Relevant Question - (see chapter 7. Identified by Arabic numerals 1, 2, 3, etc.)
2. Irrelevant Question - (see chapter 7. Identified by capital letters as A, B, C, etc.)
3. Overall Truth Question - (Identified by the capital letter "T".)
4. Stimulus Question- it is used to determine if the examinee has the ability to physiologically
respond. It should be the last question on the last chart of a series (Identified by the capital
letter "S".)
Ex. a. Do you feel your integrity has been questioned because you were asked to take this
polygraph examination?
b. Are you afraid you might fail the polygraph examination even though you are telling the
truth?
c. Do you feel angry because you were asked to take this examination?
Formatting Rules
1. Each chart must begin with two relevant or one irrelevant and one overall truth question.
2. The total test must produce three presentations of relevant questions.
3. No relevant question can be repeated during a single chart.
4. No more than three relevant questions can be presented in a row without the insertion of an
irrelevant question.
5. The overall truth question must be asked either before the first relevant question or after
the last relevant question.
6. Normally, it should not contain more than 12 questions.
7. If used, the stimulus question should be the last question on the last chart.
8. Questions should be rotated on each chart for a fresh look.
9. The most responsive relevant question should not be asked as the first relevant question
of the next chart.
10. No sensitivity or cardio pressure changes should be made after the first relevant
question is asked on a chart,
Sample Set of Test Question (RI Diagnostic Exam)
A. Do you live in the Philippines? (Irrelevant)
B. Is today Sunday? (Irrelevant)
T-1. Do you plan to lie on any question of this test? (Overall Truth)
1. Did you help anyone take that missing money from the vault? (Relevant)
2. Did you take any of that missing money from the vault? (Relevant)
C. Is this the month of October? (Irrelevant)
3. Do you know who take that missing money from the vault? (Relevant)
4. Did you conspire with anyone in taking that missing money? (Relevant)
T-2. Did you answer all questions on this test truthfully? (Overall Truth - Optional)
S-1. Are you afraid you might fail the test even though you are telling the truth? (Stimulus
Question Used as the last question of the last chart if the examinee has been generally
unresponsive.)
Modified Relevant-Irrelevant (MRI)
The modification of RI calls for the addition of situational control question.
Test Questions Constituting Modified RI Diagnostic Exam
1. Relevant Question - (see chapter 7. Identified by Arabic numerals 1, 2, 3, etc.)
2. Irrelevant Question - (see chapter 7. Identified by car letters as A, B, C, etc.)
3. Overall Truth Question - (Identified by the capital letter "T".)
4.Situational Control a question connected to the relevant issue and designed to relieve
normal feelings of guilt, anger, frustration, or concern felt by the innocent examinee. It is
answerable by "yes".
5. Stimulus Question- it is used to determine if the examinee has the ability to physiologically
respond. It should be the last question on the last chart of a series. (Identified by the capital
letter "S".)
Sample Set of Test Question (MRI)
A. (Irrelevant Question)
B. (Irrelevant Question)
T. (Overall Truth)
1. Have friends seen you and your wife argue in public in the past six months? (Situational Control)
2. Where you in the process of getting divorce from your wife? (Situational Control) C. (Irrelevant)
3. Did you tell the police that you found your wife stabbed to death at your home on June 28?
(Situational Control)
4. Did you stab your wife? (Relevant)
5. Did you stab your wife at your home on June 28? (Relevant)
D. (Irrelevant)
S. Are you afraid you might fail the test even though you are telling the truth? (Stimulus - Used as
the last question of the last chart if the examinee has been generally unresponsive)
 Interpretation of Physiological Reactions in RI
The prevailing method of interpretation is global analysis. With this method, examiners look
for significant reactions that occur on the same questions repeatedly. “Conspecnificance" is the
consistency of reaction to a specific question with significant
name given to the principle:
magnitude . Random or insignificant reactions are disregarded. Some examiners use checkmarks
on a particular question, that is the question receives a checkmark on the score sheet. If there are
two or more checkmarks on a particular question, the examiner explores the topic further with the
examinee and conduct a retest regarding that question using a single issue diagnostic exam
B. PEAK OF TENSION TEST (POT)
The POT test has been used since the beginning of polygraphy and continued to be helpful in
some polygraph cases. Most polygraph examiners conduct POT after a CQT has indicated
deception in order to confirm the findings or to help investigators search for evidence.
Two Types of POT Test
1. Known Solution Peak of Tension Test (KSPOT) – is used to determine whether the
examinee is aware of details of a crime that had been kept from the general public and would
presumably only be known to the perpetrator of the crime or those with incriminating
knowledge.
2. Searching Peak of Tension Test (SPOT) - is used to determine details of a crime that are not
known to officials, such as the location of an unrecovered body, but would be known to a
participant in the crime.
Terms to Consider in POT Test
1. False Key - a question placed in the KSPOT to distract the innocent examinee.
2. Key - item in the POT that focuses on a detail of a crime that would only be recognized by
the guilty deceptive person and not of the truthful examinee.
3. Padding - items in the SPOT that would be recognized by the guilty person as unrelated to
the crime and also would be seen by the examinee as equally probable as the key.
4. Possible Keys - items in the SPOT that encompass crime details known to the deceptive
subject but not to investigators. Used to reveal the location of evidence, name of
accomplices or other details of interest to the investigators.
5. Cover-All Question - a question used in the SPOT to determine whether the concealed
information was not captured in the other possible keys.
 
Guidelines in the Construction of KSPOT Test
1. The KSPOT always contains 6 to 9 items.
2. There must be at least two padding questions before and after the key. If more than one
KSPOT test is conducted, the key to each test is placed in a different position than the other
tests.
3. The key must be a verified act, and one that the guilty would recognize.
4. Each key must be fully exclusive with the other keys.
Guidelines in the Construction of SPOT Test
1. It has about 9 to 10 items.
2. It is constructed with 4 or 5 possible keys.
3. There must be at least 2 padding questions before and after the possible keys. Padding
questions must be impossible options so that they cannot become possible keys.
4. The possible keys must be exhaustive and mutually exclusive, that is, all possibilities must
be covered but there must be no overlapping among the keys.
5. A cover-all question is recommended in case the true key is not among the possible keys.
6. The examinee must recognize the true key.
Conducting a POT Test
1. Each test begins with a preparatory case that clearly states what the test covers, and
which is used only once at the beginning of the test.
Ex. Regarding the type of weapon used to threaten
Gabriel Yu.........?
2. Each item is preceded by a standard phrase such as was it is that person, is it located in,
etc..
Ex.
• Was it a knife?
• Was it a pistol?
• Was it a rifle?
3. The questions are always reviewed with examinee before the test.
4. The examinee answers "no" to all of the questions.
5. Visual aids (maps, photos, diagrams, question list) should be placed in front of the
examinee to augment the verbal presentation of the questions especially with SPOT test
6. Each POT test is conducted at least three times and questions are spaced 15 - 20 seconds
apart. For the first two tests, the order of the questions is exactly the same as they were
reviewed with the examinee before the test. For the third test, the order is reversed and the
examinee is advised in advance. A fourth chart is permitted with a mixed question order if
the three do not result in a definite opinion.
 C. COMPARISON QUESTION TEST (CQT)
An umbrella term for standard testing formats that use probable-lie or directed-lie
control questions . In comparison question technique, the relevant questions are compared
with the control questions via numerical scoring.
One of the major contributions to polygraphy in the last fifty years has been the John E.
Reid's control questions. He indicated that his motivation for developing this procedure was
to reduce the number of inconclusive charts and apply to some form of measuring system
that he felt not available" relevant/irrelevant technique.
Sample Set of Test Question (Single Issue)
1. Is your name ___) (N)
2. Regarding the missing money from the vault on Dec. 13 2008, are you willing to answer the
questions truthfully? (SR)
3. Do you believe I will only ask the questions we have reviewed? (B)
4. Between the ages of ___ and ___, did you ever steal anything of value? (C)
5. Did you take that missing money? (R)
6. Prior to did you ever steal from someone who trusted you? (C)
7. Did you take that missing money from the vault? (R)
8. Are you afraid I will ask you a question we have not reviewed? (B)
9. While in ___, did you ever steal anything of value from a friend? (C)
10. Did you take that missing money on December 13, 2008? (R)
 
Codes: Sample Set of Test Question (Multi-Facet)
N= Neutral 1. Neutral
SR = Sacrifice Relevant 2. Sacrifice Relevant
B = Symptomatic 3. Symptomatic
C = Control 4. Comparison
R = Relevant 5. Did you take that missing money from the vault? (R)
6. Comparison
7. Did you participate in the taking of that missing money (R)
8. Symptomatic
9. Comparison
10. Do you know who stole that missing money? (R)
Scoring Rule
Each relevant question should be scored to the stronger bracketing comparison question. If
necessary, the examiner may skip over the neighbouring relevant question.
TEST FOR ESPIONAGE AND SABOTAGE (TES)
The test for sabotage and espionage is a polygraph technique used by government agencies
to examine employees who are suspected of committing sabotage and espionage against the
government. It was developed by the Department of Defense Polygraph Institute, and has three
sets of two relevant question Pairings or six relevant question analysis spots comprising each of
two sub-tests.
Test Questions Constituting TES
1. Neutral Question
2. Control Question
3. Relevant Question
 Table 7
TES Question Sequence Charts
Charts Questions
  Neutral-1
  Neutral-2
Sacrifice
 
Control-1
1 Relevant-1
  Relevant-2
Control-2
 
 
2 Relevant-1
Relevant-2
Control -1
3 Relevant-1
Relevant-2
Control -3
 The TES utilizes two relevant questions, three control, two neutral and one sacrifice
relevant questions. It is conducted using a single set of examination which covers three
charts as shown in the table of question sequence. Each relevant question presentation is
compared against the most responsive control question positioned immediately preceding
or following it.
Sample Set of TES Question
1. Were you born in the Philippines? (neutral)
2. Is today Sunday? (neutral)
3. Do you intend to answer truthfully the questions about criminal activities? (Sacrifice)
4. Did you ever do anything that was a violation of a rule, regulation or law? (control -1) 5.
Have you committed an act of sabotage during this project? (relevant-1)
6. Have you committed an act of espionage during this project? (relevant-2)
7. Have you ever done anything that you later decided to lie about or keep secret? (control-2)
8. Have you committed an act of sabotage during this project? (relevant-1)
9. Have you committed an act of espionage during this project? (relevant-2)
10. Did you ever do anything that was a violation of a rule, regulation or the law? (control - 1)
11. Have you committed an act of sabotage during this project? (relevant-1)
12. Have you committed an act of espionage during this project? (relevant-2)
13. Have you ever done anything that you later decided to lie about or keep secret?
(control-3)
CONCEALED INFORMATION TEST (CIT)
The CIT is a test used to determine what an examinee knows about the details of a
particular crime. It is the most researched and validated method available to polygraph
examiners. It was introduced by David Lykken in 1959. Unlike with the CQT, it can be
conducted even if the examinee has been interrogated extensively. It is also known as Guilty
Knowledge Test (GKT).
In CIT, the examiner's knowledge regarding the modes and manner on how a particular
crime committed is very important, including also the items taken in case of theft or robbery
 
Terms to Consider in CIT
1. Critical Item- sometimes called the "key". It is the stimulus known to the examiner as
being directly related to the crime being investigated. The key item must be something that
the subject is most likely to have paid attention to and be able to recall during the testing.
For example, a key item can be a murder weapon used in the killing.
2. Alternative - item in CIT that is not the critical item. Also termed asControl Item .
3. Electrodermal Response (EDR) - change in the electrical properties of the skin recorded in
polygraphy as skin resistance.
Sample CIT Question Set
A. If you are the person who broke into the house, you know where it was entered. Repeat
after me these areas of entry:
1. Basement window
2. Garage door
3. Bathroom window
4. Front door
5. Backdoor (key item)
6. Bedroom window
B. If you are the person who broke into that house last night, you did something on the
property just before entering the house. Repeat after me these actions:
1. Broke a window
2. Cut the phone line (key item)
3. Tied up a dog
4. Climbed the fence
5. Damage a birdbath
6. Broke the porch light
C. If you are the person who broke into the house, you got in using a particular method.
Repeat after me these methods:
1. Screwdriver the lock
2. Crashed brick through window
 3. Hacksawed the padlock
4. Kicked in the door (key item)
5. Sledgehammered the hinges
6. Picked the lock
D. If you are the person who broke into the house last night, you stole something. Repeat
after me these methods:
1. Shotgun
2. Credit cards
3. Television set (key item)
4. Bottle of vodka
5. Coin collection
6. Necklace
E. If you are the person who broke into that house last night, you escaped through one of
these exits. Repeat after me these exits:
1. Basement window
2. Garage door
3. Patio door
4. Front door
5. Bathroom window
6. Bedroom window
Scoring Rules
Lykken scoring has been used in every CIT research study published to date that analyzed
physiological responses. It entails the ranking of the electrodermal response amplitudes
from 2 to 0. If the largest EDR takes place on the key item, the score for that test is 2. If the
second largest EDR takes place on the key item, the score is 1. All others are zero. Reactions
to the first item are ignored.
 Decision Rules
Once scoring has been completed, the scores can be used to form an opinion.
Three Outcomes in CIT
1. Recognition Indicated (RI) - this means that the subject knows the details of the crime
2. No Recognition Indicated (NRI) the subject does not know the details of the crime.
3. No Opinion (NO) - no result
These decisions are based on the total score. After the completion of the CITs, the scores are
summed up for all tests. The range of total scores can run 0 to twice the number of CITs. For
example, if there were five CITs run, with a potential score of 2 point per CIT, the maximum
attainable score is 10. The cut-off for a call of RI is equal to the number or CITs conducted. Using
the five-CIT scenario, a total score of 5 or greater would justify a call of RI. A total score of 4 or
less called for an NRI decision. NO can arise if there are no reactions to any of the CITs, or if the
number of useable CITs is severely reduced by movements, artefacts or Countermeasures.