Last Name, First Name, Middle Initial: Montes Jr., Mario C.

Yr. & Section: 5-1

Course Code: BS Arch
Date Submitted: September 13, 2020

RESEARCH ASSIGNMENT NO. 1

Topic 1. Structural Analysis

Discussion: Structural design is a highly specialized area of civil engineering. It can

be described as a set of methods or tools that are used to determine safe and
economical specifications for a structure, and to ensure that a planned structure
will be sufficiently strong to carry its intended load. Structural engineers conduct
a structural analysis to determine what internal and external forces could affect
the structure, then design a structure with the appropriate materials and
reinforcements to satisfy the requirements.

Link/Reference book, etc.: https://esub.com/what-is-structural-design-in-civil-engineering/

Topic 2

Discussion

Link/Reference book, etc.

Topic 3. Construction Materials

Discussion  
Buildings can be categorized into five different types of construction: fire-
resistive, non-combustible, ordinary, heavy timber, and wood-framed.
Fire-resistive Type I (IA and IB)
With this type of construction, walls, partitions, columns, floors, and roofs are
the most noncombustible when it comes to fire-resistant ratings. These
structures are usually easy to spot based on their height. Fire-resistive
buildings are more than 75-feet tall and made of poured concrete and
protective steel. They are designed to withstand the effects of fire for a long
period of time to prevent a fire from spreading. Ventilation in these types of
buildings is not an option because the roof must also be composed of
noncombustible materials.

Non-combustible Type II (IIA and IIB)

Non-combustible buildings are similar to the fire-resistive type where walls,
partitions, columns, floors, and roofs are noncombustible. However, they
provide less fire resistance and do not withstand the effects or spreading of
fire as well as Type I. This type gets its name “noncombustible” not because
of its resistance to fire, but because of the fuel the building contributes. Newer
school buildings are common examples of this type of construction. These
buildings typically have a metal floor and metal roof with masonry or tilt-slab
walls. They are the least stable in terms of collapse when exposed to fire.
Ordinary Type III
These buildings are also called brick-and-joist structures. This type of
construction has brick or block walls with a wooden roof or floor assembly
which is not protected against fire. All or part of the interior structural elements
(frame, floors, ceilings, etc.) is combustible/wood. Verticle ventilation in these
types of buildings is possible. You will see ordinary construction in both old
and new buildings.

Heavy Timber Type IV

Type IV buildings have noncombustible exterior walls and interior elements.
These buildings are made out of solid or laminated wood. All wooden
members must meet dimensional requirements. Wood columns, beams, and
girders must be at least 8 inches thick. Heavy planks for floors and roofs must
be at least 6 inches thick. If these types of buildings catch fire, they require
large volumes of water to extinguish, but they hold up well against fire and
don’t collapse easily due to their structural mass.

Wood-Framed Type V
Wood-framed buildings are the most combustible out of all the types. They
are the only construction type that allow combustible exterior walls. Type V
also allows a combustible interior (structural frames, walls, floors, and roofs)
made entirely or partly out of wood. This type is commonly found in modern
homes. They often have exposed wood so there is no fire-resistance. It ignites
significantly but is reasonably resistant to collapse unless it is a lightweight
construction, in which case it will fail within minutes.

With all the different kinds of buildings around us, you may want to observe
the materials and structures around you as you travel day-to-day. Take notes
in your construction CRM to compare the qualities of different buildings
yourself. Doing so will give you more experience in developing an eye for
building construction. By distinguishing these building constructions into five
types, you can personally decide which structure is best for new construction.
Again, those building construction types include fire-resistive, non-
combustible, ordinary, heavy timber, and wood-framed.
Link/Reference book, etc.: https://www.jobnimbus.com/blog/2020/01/22/what-are-the-5-
types-of-building-construction/

Topic 5. Properties of Material

Discussion:
Material Stress and Strain
First, we need to explain some of the physical concepts behind the mechanical properties.
The main one is stress. Stress tells you how big of a force applies to an area. In mechanical
engineering, it is mostly expressed in MPa’s or N/mm2. Those two are interchangeable. The
formula for stress is:

σ=F/A, where F is force (N) and A is area (mm2).

The second important concept is strain. Strain has no unit as it is a ratio of lengths. It is
calculated as follows:

ε=(l-l0)/l0, where l0 is starting or initial length (mm) and l is stretched length (mm).

Young’s Modulus
From those two concepts we get to our first mechanical properties – stiffness and elasticity
as its opposite. It is an important factor for engineers when solving physics problems
(material suitability for a certain application).

Stiff material does not compress nor elongate easily

Stiffness is expressed as Young’s modulus, also known as modulus of elasticity. As one of the
primary mechanical properties of materials, it defines the relationship between stress and
strain – the bigger its value, the stiffer the material.

This means that the same load would deform two equally-sized parts differently, if they have
varying Young’s moduli. At the same time, lesser value means that the material is more
elastic.

The formula for Young’s modulus:

E=σ/ε (MPa)

Yield Strength
Yield stress or yield strength is the value most often used in engineering calculations. It gives
a material a stress value in MPa it can take before plastic deformation. This place is called
the yield point. Before it, a material regains its former shape when lifting the load. After
exceeding the yield point, the deformation is permanent.
Stress-strain curve

There is a good reason for using yield stress as the most important factor in mechanical
engineering. As can be seen from the stress-strain curve, when stress goes beyond the yield
point, the damage is not yet catastrophic. That leaves a “cushion” before a construction fails
completely to the point of breaking.

Tensile Strength
Ultimate tensile strength, or just tensile strength, is the next step from yield strength. Also
measured in MPa’s, this value indicates the maximum stress a material can withstand before
fracturing.

When choosing a suitable material to tolerate known forces, two materials with a similar
yield strength may have different tensile strengths. Having higher tensile strength may help
to avoid accidents, if unforeseen forces are applied.

Plasticity
Plasticity is a mechanical property of materials that shows the ability to deform under stress
without breaking, while retaining the deformed shape after the load is lifted. Metals with
higher plasticity are better for forming. This is evident in metal bending.

Two related mechanical properties of materials are ductility and malleability. Ductility has a
pretty much similar description to plasticity – it is a material’s ability to undergo plastic
deformation before breaking. It is expressed as a percent elongation or percent area
reduction. Basically, ductility is a property you need when drawing thin metal wires, for
example. A good example of such a ductile material is copper. This makes the fabrication of
wires possible.

Malleability is, by definition, also similar. But it actually characterises a material’s suitability
for compressive deformation. In essence, a metal with good malleability is fitting for
producing metal plates or sheets by rolling or hammering.
Toughness
Toughness is a combination of strength and plasticity. A tough material can take hard blows
without rupturing. Toughness is often defined as a material’s ability to absorb energy
without cracking.

Material toughness is essential with such machinery

An example of required toughness is quarry loaders. Throwing huge rocks into the bins
results in deformations, not cracks, if the material is tough.

Hardness
Another important attribute for an engineering material. High hardness values show that a
material resists localised pressures. In simple terms, a hard material is not easy to scrape or
punctuate with lasting marks (plastic deformation). It is especially important when heavy
wear processes take place. In such circumstances, hard materials like Hardox are suitable.
Hardness and toughness are two qualities that account for durability.

Hardness is measured by scratching, bouncing or indentation. The most common way to

describe hardness is through indentation hardness. There are different ways to carry out
these tests, depending on the material. Each results in a different hardness unit – Brinell,
Vickers or Rockwell. If you want to compare 2 materials that have hardness values in
different systems, you have to convert them to the same type (e.g Vickers) first.

Brittleness
Brittleness is usually quite an unwanted material property in mechanical engineering. It
means that a material breaks without noticeable plastic deformation. An indication of a
material’s brittleness is the snapping sound it makes when breaking.

Brittle material broken

Brittle materials leave broken edges that belong recognisably together
Although when thinking about brittleness, it may be associated with low strength but it is
not so in reality. Those two are not mutually exclusive. A strong material can still be brittle.
An example of this is ceramics. Cast iron is an example of a brittle metal.

Fatigue Strength
Video ThumbnailFatigue Test of Aluminum Sample
Fatigue strength, or fatigue limit, expresses a material’s ability to withstand cyclic stresses. In
case of ferrous alloys, there is a clear limit the metal can resist. In case the stress is lower
than the limit (according to the number of cycles), there is no fear of breaking.

It is an important material property to keep in mind when designing shafts. The direction of
force is constantly changing with the rotation of the shaft, meaning the stress is cyclical.

With other metals, like aluminium and copper, there is no clear limit for cyclical stress
resistance. They still tend to break after a certain amount of reversed bending stress. For
such materials, there is another similar measurable value – endurance strength.

With fatigue strength, a material has an infinite life, if the stress value is below the fatigue
limit. In case of endurance strength, you get a value below which the material can work for a
certain number of cycles. It is usually set at 107.
Link/Reference book, etc.: https://fractory.com/mechanical-properties-of-materials/