Cell: the fundamental unit of life

Cell: the fundamental unit of life

 Cell compartmentalization is
achieved by the use of membranes,
which are composed of lipid
bilayers.

 Membranes make life on Earth

possible

 But they also present a great

problem, as they impose barriers to
diffusion and intracellular transport.

 How to get nutrients inside and how

to excrete waste?
 Self-assembly of amphipathic molecules

covalent hydrocarbon chain carboxylate head

O- Na+

O
non-polar, oil-soluble, hydrophobic polar, water-soluble,
hydrophilic
Self-assembly of amphipathic molecules
 Amphipathic compounds in aqueous solutions

Dispersion of lipids in H2O: Clustering of lipid molecules: Micelles: All hydrophobic groups are
Each lipid molecule forces Fewer H2O Molecules are sequestered from water; ordered shell
surrounding H2O molecules ordered, and entropy is of H2O molecules is minimized, and
to become highly ordered. increased entropy is further increased.
Self-assembly of amphipathic molecules

Soap bubble

A vesicle
Lipid geometry determines their packing
Lipids: amphipathic molecules that make biological membranes

Hydrophilic Kink or bend in

“head” group one fatty acyl
chain in this
phospholipid
because of cis
double bond

Hydrophobic hydrocarbon “tails” = fatty acid-

derived side chains = acyl chains
 Lipid bilayer is a two-dimensional fluid

 Lateral diffusion occurs rapidly within the plane of the membrane

 Individual phospholipids may rotate axially

 Flip-flopping from one side to the other is energetically unfavourable: very rare
Biological membranes contain a variety of lipids
Phospholipids
Sphingolipids: Another major class of biological membrane lipids

Black = sphingosine
Black + red = a ceramide
Black + red + blue = a
sphingomyelin

Ceramide
Sphingosine = amino alcohol
with a long hydrocarbon chain.

Ceramide = sphingosine with a

fatty acid linked by an amide
bond to the amine to form an N-
acyl chain.

Sphingomyelin = ceramides with

a phosphocholine head group.
The myelin sheath that surrounds and
electrically insulates many nerve cell
axons is rich in sphingomyelin.
Biological membranes contain a variety of lipids

Glycolipids Cholesterol
Asymmetric distribution in the two leaflets
Membranes function as selective chemical barriers

Membrane permeability
Other than lipids, membranes contain proteins as well

Transmembrane domains

Glycolipid anchor

Fatty acid anchor

Functions of membrane proteins

17
Transmembrane proteins
 Mechanisms of transport across cell membrane

 Non-carrier-mediated transport

 Simple diffusion

Passive transport
 Carrier-mediated transport

 Facilitated diffusion

 Active transport
 Diffusion
 Random motion of molecules due to there thermal energy
 If there is a concentration gradient, diffusion of molecules would diminish
the gradient and reach equilibrium.
 Gas exchange between the intracellular and extracellular
compartments occurs by diffusion

= CO2
= O2

Extracellular Environment

Tissue cell
 Small ions can get transported through channels

Inorganic ions such as Na+ and K+ are able to penetrate

the membrane through pores within integral proteins
that span the thickness of the double phospholipid layers

Phospholipid
Integral Ions bilayer
protein
 Rate of diffusion

Rate of diffusion depends on:

 Concentration difference across the membrane

 Permeability of the membrane to the diffusing molecule
 Surface area of the membrane
 Molecular weight of the diffusion molecule
 Distance
 Temperature

Concentration gradient × Surface area × Temperature

Rate of diffusion ∝
MW x distance
Osmolarity: Solute concentration and diffusion of water

macromolecules organic molecules ions

 Osmotic pressure, osmolality, and tonicity

 Osmotic pressure: The pressure needed to prevent osmotic movement of

water from one area to another across a semipermeable membrane.

 Osmolality: Total molality of substances in a solution is called osmolality

(Osm).

 Osmolarity: Total molarity of substances in a solution is called osmolarity.

 A solution containing 1 m glucose and 1 m fructose has osmolality

of 2 osmol/kg (2 Osm).

 Electrolytes such as NaCl are ionized when in solution, therefore

one molecule of NaCl in solution yields two ions. So 1 m of NaCl has
osmolality of 2 Osm.

 Tonicity: Solutions that have the same total concentration of osmotically

active solutes and the same osmotic pressure are said to be isotonic.

 In the body, the osmolality is ~280 mOsm.

 Effect of hypotonic solution
on cell volume

Cell

HYPOTONIC
Cell swells

200 mOsm/L solution

 Effect of hypertonic solution
on cell volume

Cell

HYPERTONIC
Cell shrinks

360 mOsm/L solution

 Effect of isotonic solution
on cell volume

Cell

ISOTONIC
No change

280 mOsm/L solution

Aquaporins: water channels
The initial concentration of Side A and Side B are indicated
above on either side of the U-tube.

0.8 M sucrose 1.2 M sucrose

1.5 M starch 0.6 M starch
0.6 M NaCl 1.0 M NaCl
 Carrier-mediated transport

Two major types

 Facilitated diffusion:

like simple diffusion facilitated diffusion is powered by thermal

energy of the diffusing molecules. But the transport of
molecules across the membrane is helped by a carrier protein.
For example glucose is transported to the cells of the body by
facilitated diffusion. The net transport is along the
concentration gradient.

 Active transport:

Movement of molecules against their concentration gradient

which requires energy (ATP). For example movement of
calcium from inside to outside of the cell.
 Outside of cell = Glucose
Higher concentration
= carrier
protein

Inside of cell Facilitated diffusion

Lower concentration
 Carrier-mediated transport

• Unlike the simple diffusion, carrier-mediated transport shows:

1- Specificity

2- Competition

3- Saturation

Simple diffusion
Active transport
 K+
Cl‒
Electrochemical Equilibrium

Different conc. in the two 1 mM KCl

compartments (Same conc. In both chambers)
Different conc. in the two
compartments
Electrochemical Equilibrium
 Active transport
Solute movement against a concentration or electrochemical gradient

The amount of energy needed for the transport of a solute against a gradient
can be calculated from the initial concentration gradient.

The free-energy for transport of uncharged solute,

When the solute is an ion, its movement without an accompanying counterion

results in the separation of positive and negative charges, producing an
electrical potential; such a transport process is said to be electrogenic.

The energetic cost of moving an ion depends on the electrochemical potential,

the sum of the chemical and electrical gradients:

transmembrane
electrical potential (in volts)

charge on the ion Faraday constant

 Active transport

Primary active transport

 ATP is directly needed for the carrier protein in the following

sequence:

 Binding of molecule to the carrier protein

 ATP hydrolysis

 Carrier changes its shape and moves the molecule across

the membrane

 Examples:

 Na+/K+ pump

 Ca2+ transport from

inside to outside the cell
Na+/K+ pump
 Secondary active transport (Co-transport)

when endergonic (uphill) transport of one solute is coupled to the

exergonic (downhill) flow of a different solute that was originally pumped
uphill by primary active transport.

Antiport Symport
 Transport of glucose in kidney

Secondary
Active Transport

Primary Facilitated
Active Transport Diffusion
 Summary
 A cell membrane defines the boundary of a cell and acts as a barrier between
inside and outside of the cell.

 The membranes are also required for compartmentalization in the cells.

 Biological membranes are made up of lipids (largely phospholipids) and

proteins.

 Proteins can be integral or peripheral.

 Proteins are responsible for most of the membrane’s functions.

 Summary
 Transport across membrane:

o Passive
 Diffusion
 Facilitated diffusion

o Active transport
 Primary
 Secondary

 Co-transport:

o Symport
o Antiport

 Transport of water: osmosis

 Electrochemical gradient and membrane potential