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Physics preparatory course 1
Foundations
Péter Makra
Department of Medical Physics and Informatics, University of Szeged
Version: 1.13 | Latest update: 30th September 2019
Péter Makra (University of Szeged) Physics preparatory course 1 1 / 65

Contents
1 Course information
2 Functions
3 Elementary algebra
Quadratic equations
Exponentiation
Logarithms
Exponential function
4 Trigonometry
5 Geometry
6 Vector algebra
7 Introduction to differentiation
8 Introduction to integration
9 Physical units

Course information
Contact information
• name of course: Physics preparatory course 1

• name of lecturer: Péter Makra
• phone: (36 62 34) 1291
• e-mail: makra.peter@med.u-szeged.hu
• web page of course:
http://www2.szote.u-szeged.hu/dmi/eng/index.php/pre-medical-programme

Course information
Requirements
Grading
• attending lectures is mandatory
• three 25-point multiple-choice tests during the semester (75 points total)
• mid-term activity (eg, surprise tests): 25 points total
• final mark — results will be summed up and you will get a mark based on your
ranking compared to all students in the foundation year (‘grading on a curve’):
• lowest 7% of students: fail (1)
• lower middle 25% of students: sufficient (2)
• middle 36% of students: satisfactory (3)
• upper middle 25% of students: good (4)
• top 7% of students: excellent (5)

Course information
Additional reading
• HOLZNER , STEVEN. Physics essentials for dummies. Hoboken: Wiley, 2010

• Khan Academy: Physics. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics
• AS/A2 Level Physics, OCR. A Complete Revision & Practice. CGP Books. ISBN:
978 1 84762 419 2
https://www.cgpbooks.co.uk/OverseasSchool/Europe/books as science
physics ocr.book PRAR71
• SERWAY R A , JEWETT J W. Physics for scientists and engineers. Thomson
Brooks/Cole, 2004
• TIPLER , PAUL A. College Physics. New York: Worth Publishers, 1987
• ARFKEN G B , GRIFFING D F, KELLY D C AND PRIEST J. University Physics. Orlando:
Academic Press, 1984

Functions
Definition
• function: a relation between a given set of elements (the domain) and another
set of elements (the co-domain), which associates each element in the
domain with exactly one element in the co-domain
• example: x 7→ x2 (read:‘x maps to x2 ’) — we associate numbers with their
squares
• notation:
• f (x): f as a function of x (read: ‘f of x’) — f (x) is the number which the function
associates with x; f : the function itself
• f : x 7→ y — the sign 7→ (‘maps to’) indicates the association or relation that
defines the function
• x in the formulae above: independent variable — the element of the domain
• f (x) and y in the formulae above: dependent variable or the value of the
function — the element of the co-domain
• significance: physical quantities often depend on other physical quantities
(eg, air pressure on temperature) ⇒ physical quantities are functions of other
physical quantities

Functions
Illustration

Functions
Inverse of a function
• inverse of a function: ‘the opposite of a function’; the function which finds the
independent variable that would yield the given function value
• eg, the inverse of the square function: square root (finds the number whose
square is a given value)
• not all functions have an inverse function, only the functions for which
1 every value in the co-domain corresponds to no more than one value in the
domain
2 every value in the co-domain corresponds to at least one value in the domain
Function x2 ex sin(x)
p
Inverse x ln(x) arcsin(x)
Table 1: Examples of inverse functions

Functions
Illustration: invertible functions

Functions
Visualising a function
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
• using a graph
0.2
• independent
f(x)
0.0
variable: on the
horizontal axis -0.2
• dependent -0.4
variable: on the -0.6

vertical axis -0.8
-1.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

Elementary algebra
Factoring
• common factor:
ax1 + ax2 = a(x1 + x2 )
• perfect square:
x2 ± 2xy + y 2 = (x ± y)2
• difference of squares
x2 − y 2 = (x + y)(x − y)

Elementary algebra Quadratic equations
Quadratic equations
• a variable is to the 2nd power
• standard form:
ax2 + bx + c = 0,
where a, b and c are constants

• solution:
p
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x1,2 =
2a
• example:
2x2 − 8x − 4 = 0
x2 − 4x − 2 = 0
p p
−(−4) + (−4)2 − 4 · 1 · (−2) 4 + 24
x1 = = ≈ 4.45
2·1 2
p p
−(−4) − (−4)2 − 4 · 1 · (−2) 4 − 24
x2 = = ≈ −0.45
2·1 2
Elementary algebra Quadratic equations
Illustration
60.0
50.0
40.0
f(x) = x2 - 4x - 2
30.0
20.0
10.0
x1 x2
0.0
-10.0
-6.0 -4.0 -2.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
x
Elementary algebra Exponentiation
Exponentiation (1)
• x to the nth power:
xn = x
| · x · x{z· . . . · x}
n times
• n: power / exponent; x: base

• multiplication:
xn · xm = x
| · x · x{z· . . . · x} • x
| · x · x{z· . . . · x} = x
| · x · x{z· . . . · x} = x
n+m
n times m times n+m times
• 0th power:
x0 = 1 ∀x
• negative power:
xn x−n = xn−n = x0 = 1 // ÷ xn
1
x−n =
xn
Elementary algebra Exponentiation
Exponentiation (2)
• division:
xn
= xn · x−m = xn−m
xm
• fractional exponent:
example:
1 1 1 1
³ 1 ´2 1 p
x = x1 = x 2 + 2 = x 2 · x 2 = x 2 , ⇒ x 2 = x
in general:
1 p
n
xn = x
m p
n
xn = xm
• exponentiation of an exponential expression:
m times
¡ n ¢m z n }| {
x x ·xn · xn · . . . · xn = x
= |{z} | · x · x{z· . . . · x} = x
nm
n times n·m times

Elementary algebra Logarithms
Logarithms
• the logarithm of a number y to the base a is the number for which y = ax :
loga y = x if y = ax
• logarithm turns multiplication into addition:
loga an am = n + m = loga an + loga am

¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
• logarithm turns exponentiation into multiplication:

 
¡ n¢
loga y = loga y · y · y · . . . · y  = loga y + loga y + loga y + . . . + loga y = n · loga y
| {z } | {z }
n times n times
• loga a = 1 (⇐ a1 = a)
• loga 1 = 0 (⇐ a0 = 1 ∀a)

Elementary algebra Logarithms
Special-base logarithms
• common base: the base of 10
log10 x =: lg x
eg, lg 100 = log10 100 = log10 102 = 2

¡ ¢
• natural base: the base of e (≈ 2.718)
loge x =: ln x
if x = ey , then y = ln x

Elementary algebra Exponential function
Exponential function
• exponentiation to a special base: e (≈ 2.718)

• corresponds to phenomena where the rate of change of a quantity is
proportional to the quantity itself
• one of its definitions:
x2 x3 ∞ xk
ex := 1 + x +
X
+ +... =
2! 3! k=0 k!
∞
•
P
(. . .): ‘the sum of (. . .) for all values of k between 0 and ∞’
k=0
• k!: ‘k factorial’ — the product of all positive integers up to and including k:
k! = 1 · 2 · 3 · . . . · k

Trigonometry
Angle units
• angle in degrees: full circle = 360◦
• angle in radians: the ratio of the length of the arc belonging to an angle and
the radius of the circle — full circle = 2π
s
α=
r
• conversion between degrees and radians:

2rπ
full circle: s = 2rπ ⇒ α = = 2π rad = 360◦
r
2π
1◦ = rad
360
360◦
1 rad =
2π
Trigonometry
Relations between angles
vertices: α = β complementary angles: α + β = 180◦
corresponding angles: α = β perpendicular lines (AB ⊥ CD, AC ⊥ BC): α = β

Trigonometry
Trigonometric functions
• sin α = a
c
• cos α = b
c
a a sin α
• tan α =
b = c · bc = sin α · cos1 α = cos α
b b cos α
• cot α =
a = c · ac = cos α · sin1 α = sin α
• using Pythagoras’ theorem:
a2 + b2 = c2 // ÷ c2
µ ¶2
a2 b2 ³ a ´2 b
+ = + =1
c2 c2 c c
sin2 α + cos2 α = 1
• notation: sin2 α := (sin α)2

Geometry
Sphere
• the radius of the sphere: r

• the volume of the sphere: r
4π 3
V= r
3
• the surface area of the sphere:
A = 4πr 2

Geometry
Cylinder
• the radius of the circles at the top and
bottom: r
• the height of the cylinder: h
• the volume of the cylinder = area of base
times the height:
V = r 2 πh
• the surface area of the top or the bottom =

h
the area of a circle: r 2 π
• the surface area of the side (lateral surface
area) = the area of a rectangle with the height
h as one side and the circumference of the
circle, 2rπ as the other side: 2rπh r
• the total surface area of the cylinder:
A = 2r 2 π + 2rπh = 2rπ · (r + h)
Geometry
Lateral surface area
h A h
2rπ

Vector algebra
Vector and scalar quantities
A scalar quantity is completely specified by a single value with an appro-

•
priate unit and has no direction.
• examples: mass, length
A vector quantity is completely specified by a number and appropriate unit
•
plus a direction.
• examples: velocity, displacement
• notation
• in print: boldface letter — a
• in handwriting: underlining (a) or arrow above the symbol (~a)
• magnitude of vector a: |a| = a

Vector algebra
Symbol of vectors

Vector algebra
Equality of vectors
• two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and they point in the
same direction
• ⇒ we can shift a vector parallel to itself and it will remain the same vector

Vector algebra
Addition
1 move B parallel to itself so that its tail touches the tip of A

2 the resultant vector R = A + B points from the tail of A to the tip of B
B
A+
R=
B

Vector algebra
Addition: parallelogram method
1 move B parallel to itself so that its tail touches the tail of A

2 the resultant vector R = A + B points from the tail of A to the opposite vertex
of the parallelogram formed by A and B
A +B
B R=

Vector algebra
Addition of several vectors
D
C+
B+
C
A+
R=
B
A
Vector algebra
Multiplication and division by a scalar

• α: scalar; we can define α · a as a new vector with the following properties:
• its magnitude is |α| · |a|
• its direction is the same as that of a if α > 0
• its direction is the opposite of that of a if α < 0
• −a = (−1) · a: a vector with the same magnitude but opposite direction ⇒
subtraction
• division by a scalar is equivalent to multiplication by the reciprocal (inverse)
of the scalar:
a 1
= a
α α

Vector algebra
Unit vectors
• unit vector: a vector whose magnitude is 1
u is a unit vector if |u| = 1
• represents a direction
• sometimes denoted by a special symbol, eg û
• any non-zero vector can be made a unit vector if we divide the vector by its
own magnitude:
r 1
r̂ = = r
|r| |r|

Vector algebra
Subtraction of vectors
1 move B parallel to itself so that its tail touches the tail of A
2 the resultant vector C = A − B points from the tip of B to the tip of A
C=A-B
A B
C=A-B -B
A

Vector algebra
Component vectors of a vector
• vectors can be represented as a result of adding other vectors together

• breaking down a vector into its component vectors: finding vectors whose sum
is our original vector
• the component vectors are not unique: many different combinations of
vectors yield the same result
• fixing a set of directions in which the component vectors must lie ⇒ unique
components ⇒ coordinate systems

Vector algebra
Cartesian rectangular coordinate system

Vector algebra
Cartesian rectangular coordinate system

• Cartesian rectangular coordinate system: x, y and z directions fixed, each
perpendicular to the other two in a right-handed arrangement
• in this coordinate system, component vectors can be fixed: each must be
parallel to one of the x, y and z directions, respectively
• each vector A can be uniquely represented as A = Ax + Ay
Ay A
θ
x
O Ax
Vector algebra
Cartesian coordinates
• unit vector: a vector whose magnitude is 1
• the x, y and z directions can be represented by unit vectors i, j and k
• the Cartesian component vectors Ax and Ay can be given as scalar multiples of
the unit vectors:
• Ax = Ax · i
• Ay = Ay · j
• since the Cartesian unit vectors are fixed, the scalars Ax and Ay are enough to
represent a vector A fully — these are called the components of vector A
• algebraic representation of a vector: A = (Ax , Ay )
• obtaining the coordinates:
• Ax = |A| · cos θ
• Ay = |A| · sin θ
• magnitude of a vector with coordinates:
q
|A| = A2x + A2y

Vector algebra
Vector addition and scalar multiplication

y
• a = ax + ay = (ax , ay )
• b = bx + by = (bx , by )
by
b
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
• c = a + b = ax + ay + bx + by =
+
¡ ¢
(ax + bx ) + ay + by = cx + cy = (cx , cy )
b
a
• a + b = (ax + bx , ay + by )
=
• multiplication by a scalar α:
a
c
αa = α(ax , ay ) = (αax , αay )
ay
x
ax bx
Vector algebra
Scalar product or dot product
• scalar product: associates a scalar with two vectors A and B:
A · B := AB cos θ,
where θ is the angle between A and B

• A · B can be interpreted as B times the projection of A on B, or A times the
projection of B on A
• scalar product with components: A · B = (Ax , Ay ) · (Bx , By ) = Ax Bx + Ay By

Vector algebra
Vector product or cross product
• associates a new vector C with two vectors A and B: C = A × B

• the new vector C = A × B is perpendicular to the plane determined by A and B
• direction of A × B is determined by the right-hand rule
• the magnitude of A × B:
|A × B| = AB sin θ,
where θ is the angle measured from A to B

Vector algebra
Vector product or cross product

Vector algebra
Right-hand rule conventions

Introduction to differentiation
Slope of linear functions

• linear function: f (x) = s · x + i
• slope (s): the rate at which
the function changes f (x) = s∙x + i
• the greater the slope, the
steeper the curve — the
faster the function changes f (x+∆x)
• intercept (i): the value of the ∆f = f (x+∆x)-f (x)
function when x = 0 —
{
f (x)
where the function
∆x
intersects the y axis
• linear functions: the slope is
i
x
the same everywhere along
x x+∆x
the x axis:
f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
s=
∆x

Slope of non-linear functions
• the slope changes from

point to point ↓
• the slope is itself a function:
the derivative
• cannot be obtained as easily
as that of linear functions

The slope is itself a function

25
x2
2
(x )’ = 2 x
20
15
y
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
x
How to calculate the derivative?
• the smaller ∆x we take, the closer we are to the slope

• How small ∆x should be? As small as possible, but still greater than zero in
absolute value
• infinitesimal: ‘so small that it cannot be distinguished from zero by any
available means, but still not zero’
• corresponding mathematical operation: limit
• notation: lim . . . — ‘the limit of . . . as ∆x approaches zero’
∆x→0
• the definition of the derivative of a function f (x) using the limit:
df f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
≡ f 0 (x) := lim
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
• ‘the first derivative of f (x) with respect to x’

Example: derivation
• calculate the derivative of the f (x) = x2 function
df (x + ∆x)2 − x2 x2 + 2x∆x + (∆x)2 − x2

= lim = lim = lim (2x + ∆x)
dx ∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0
• lim means that ∆x is infinitesimal, that is, so small that it can be neglected:
∆x→0
df
= lim (2x + ∆x) = 2x
dx ∆x→0
• the derivative itself is a function of x
• it changes from point to point

Properties of derivation
1 derivative of constants: 4 product of functions:
dc d df dg
= 0 for all constants c (f · g) = ·g +f ·
dx dx dx dx
2 addition/subtraction: 5 ratio of functions:
d f
µ ¶
d df dg 1 df dg
(f ± g) = ± = 2 ·g −f ·
dx dx dx dx g g dx dx
3 multiplication by a constant: 6 composite of functions (‘chain rule’):
d df d ¡ ¢ df dg
(c · f ) = c · f g(x) = ·
dx dx dx dg dx

Example: chain rule

• calculate the derivative of the function f (x) = sin x2
¡ ¢
• this is a composite function: consists of two functions, executed one after the
other
• inner function (executed first): g(x) := x2
• outer function (executed second): f (g) = sin(g)
• first, we derive the outer function in terms of the inner one:
df d
= sin(g) = cos(g)
dg dg
• second, we derive the inner function:
dg d 2
= x = 2x
dx dx
• thus the derivative
d
sin x2 = cos x2 · 2x
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
dx

Commonly used derivatives
df
f (x) dx ≡ f 0 (x) note
r r−1
x r ·x r : any real number
sin(x) cos(x)
cos(x) − sin(x)
1
ln(x) x
1
loga (x) ln(a)·x
ex e x
ax ln(a) · ax
Homework: find the derivative of tan(x).

Higher derivatives
• the derivative f 0 (x) is also a function of x

• the rate of change of the derivative is also a meaningful quantity
• → the derivative can be derived further: 2nd derivative
d df f 0 (x + ∆x) − f 0 (x) d2 f
= lim =: 2 ≡ f 00 (x)
dx dx ∆x→0 ∆x dx
• ‘the second derivative of f (x) with respect to x’

• the 2nd derivative is also a function of x → 3rd , 4th &c derivatives
• ‘the nth derivative of f (x) with respect to x’
dn f
≡ f (n)
dxn

Example: higher derivatives

• find the higher derivatives of the function f (x) = x3
• 1st derivative:
d 3
x = 3x2
dx
• 2nd derivative:
d 2 d 2
3x = 3 · x = 3 · (2x) = 6x
dx dx
• 3rd derivative:
d dx
6x = 6 · =6
dx dx
• 4th and all higher derivatives:
d
6=0
dx
• Homework: find the derivatives of
f (x) = 3x4 + 8x2 .

Functions with several variables: partial derivative
• a function may have several variables (as do most functions in physics) —

f (x, y, z, · · · )
• the rate of change can be defined separately for each individual variable →
partial derivative
• partial derivative: derivative of a function with respect to one of its variables
with all the other variables held constant
• ‘the first partial derivative of f (x, y, z, · · · ) with respect to x’
∂f (x, y, z, · · · )
∂x
• note the special ∂!

Higher partial derivatives

• ‘the nth partial derivative of f (x, y, z, · · · ) with respect to x:’
∂n f (x, y, z, · · · )
∂xn
• partial derivations can be done for several variables, eg
∂2 f (x, y, z, · · · )
∂x∂y
• in the example above, we first derive with respect to y, then with respect to x
• for most functions, the order of partial derivations is arbitrary:
∂2 f (x, y, z, · · · ) ∂2 f (x, y, z, · · · )
=
∂x∂y ∂y∂x

Example: partial derivatives
• the function: f (x, y) = yx2
∂f (x, y) ∂ ¡ 2¢ ∂ ¡ 2¢
= yx = y · x = y · 2x (y was regarded as a constant)
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂f (x, y) ∂ ¡ 2¢ ∂y
= yx = x2 · = x2 (x, thus x2 was regarded as a constant)
∂y ∂y ∂y
∂2 f (x, y) ∂ ∂f (x, y) ∂ 2
= = x = 2x
∂x∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
∂2 f (x, y) ∂ ∂f (x, y) ∂ ¡ ¢ ∂y ∂2 f (x, y)
= = y · 2x = 2x = 2x =
∂y∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x∂y

Introduction to integration
Indefinite integral
• integration: the inverse of derivation
• indefinite integral or primitive function of a function f (x): the function F(x)
whose derivative is equal to f (x)
dF(x)
Z
F(x) = f (x)dx if = f (x)
dx
• the indefinite integral is not unique: if F(x) is a primitive function of f (x),

F(x) + C is also a primitive function for all C constants:
d dF(x) dC dF(x)
(F(x) + C) = + = = f (x)
dx dx dx dx
• definite integral: if F(x) is a primitive function of f (x), the definite integral
between the lower bound a and the upper bound b is defined as
Zb
f (x) dx = F(b) − F(a) =: [F(x)]ba
a

Example: integration
• the function: f (x) = x2
R4
• calculate f (x) dx
2
• primitive function F(x): the function whose derivative is f (x)
d n d 3
x = nxn−1 → x = 3x2
dx dx
µ ¶ µ ¶
d 1 3 d 1 3 dC 1
x +C = x + = · 3x2 = x2
dx 3 dx 3 dx 3
1
Z
F(x) = x2 dx = x3 + C
3
• to get the definite integral, we have to take this function at x = 2 and at x = 4:
Z4 ¸4
43 23
·
1 3 56
f (x) dx = x +C = +C − −C =
3 2 3 3 3
2

Integral as the limit of a sum

f(x)
∆x xk
x
a b
X Zb
lim f (xk )∆x = f (x) dx
∆x→0 k
a
Integral: ‘the area under the curve’

Properties of integration
Z Z
cf (x)dx = c f (x)dx if c is a constant (1)
Z Z Z
¡ ¢
f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x)dx ± g(x)dx (2)
Z µ ¶
dg(x) df (x)
Z
f (x) dx = f (x)g(x) − g(x)dx (3)
dx dx

Physical units
Physical quantities
• [physical quantity] = [number] [unit]

• eg, m = 1.08 kg
• SI: Système international d’unités – International System of Units
• seven base units ← base quantities
• all other units are derived from these, eg the unit of force (F = ma)
m
[F] = 1 N = 1 kg ·
s2
• operations applicable to units: multiplication, exponentiation, division
• only quantities having the same unit can be added to or subtracted from each
other

Physical units
Operations with physical units

Addition/subtraction
• only quantities with identical units can be added:
2 kg + 3 kg = 5 kg 4
2 kg + 3 m ⇒ meaningless 8
• if we have the same units with different prefixes, we have to resolve the
prefixes first:
2 dm2 + 0.04 m2 = 2 · (0.1 m)2 + 0.04 m2 = 0.02 m2 + 0.04 m2 = 0.06 m2
Exponentiation, multiplication, division
0.3 0.3 0.3

mol
= mol
= mol
=
12 mm · 0.1 0.012 m · 0.1 (0.1 0.012 m · 0.1 0.001
dm3 m)3 m3
0.3 0.3 m2
= = = 0.25
0.012 m · 0.1 · 1000 mol
m3
1.2 mol
m2
mol

Physical units
Base units of the SI
Quantity symbol unit name unit symbol

length l metre m
mass m kilogramme kg
time t second s
electric current I ampere A
thermodynamic temperature T kelvin K
luminous intensity Iv candela cd
amount of substance n mole mol

Physical units
SI prefixes
• prefix: a word added to the beginning of a unit to produce a multiple of that
unit
• eg 1 km (kilometre) = 1000 m (metre)
Multiples Submultiples
Name symbol factor Name symbol factor
deca- da 101 deci- d 10−1
hecto- h 102 centi- c 10−2
kilo- k 103 milli- m 10−3
mega- M 106 micro- µ 10−6
giga- G 109 nano- n 10−9
tera- T 1012 pico- p 10−12
peta- P 1015 femto- f 10−15
exa- E 1018 atto- a 10−18
zetta- Z 1021 zetto- z 10−21
yotta- Y 1024 yocto- y 10−24

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Physics preparatory course 1

Department of Medical Physics and Informatics, University of Szeged

Version: 1.13 | Latest update: 30th September 2019

Péter Makra (University of Szeged) Physics preparatory course 1 1 / 65

Péter Makra (University of Szeged) Physics preparatory course 1 2 / 65

• name of course: Physics preparatory course 1

Péter Makra (University of Szeged) Physics preparatory course 1 3 / 65

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• HOLZNER , STEVEN. Physics essentials for dummies. Hoboken: Wiley, 2010

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Table 1: Examples of inverse functions

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Illustration: invertible functions

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variable: on the -0.6

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ax1 + ax2 = a(x1 + x2 )

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where a, b and c are constants

• n: power / exponent; x: base

n times m times n+m times

n times n·m times

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• logarithm turns multiplication into addition:

loga an am = n + m = loga an + loga am

• logarithm turns exponentiation into multiplication:

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• common base: the base of 10

eg, lg 100 = log10 100 = log10 102 = 2

• natural base: the base of e (≈ 2.718)

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• exponentiation to a special base: e (≈ 2.718)

• k!: ‘k factorial’ — the product of all positive integers up to and including k:

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• conversion between degrees and radians:

Relations between angles

vertices: α = β complementary angles: α + β = 180◦

corresponding angles: α = β perpendicular lines (AB ⊥ CD, AC ⊥ BC): α = β

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• using Pythagoras’ theorem:

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• the radius of the sphere: r

• the surface area of the sphere:

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• the surface area of the top or the bottom =

Lateral surface area

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Vector and scalar quantities

A scalar quantity is completely specified by a single value with an appro-

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1 move B parallel to itself so that its tail touches the tip of A

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Addition: parallelogram method

1 move B parallel to itself so that its tail touches the tail of A

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Addition of several vectors

Multiplication and division by a scalar

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