Chapter 7: Dislocations and strengthening

mechanisms

Mechanisms of strengthening in metals

Strengthening by grain size reduction
Solid-solution strengthening
Strain hardening

Recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth

Recovery
Recrystallization
Grain growth

Strengthening by grain size reduction

Grain boundary acts as a

barrier to dislocation
motion
• Different crystallographic
grains impede dislocation
movement
• The atomic disorder
within a grain boundary
region will result in a
discontinuity of slip plans

Smaller size grains have

more grain boundary than
larger ones

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 Strengthening by grain size reduction (continue)

A fine-grained material is harder

and stronger than coarse-grained
one

Hall-Petch equation

σ yield = σo + k y d −1 / 2

Other grain boundary factors:

• high/small angle grain
boundary
• twin boundary
• boundaries with different
phases

Yield strength versus d for Cu-Zn alloy

Solid-solution strengthening

Impurity atoms generate stresses by distorting the lattice

This stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion

2
 Solid-solution strengthening (cont.)

Ex: Solid Solution: Strengthening in Copper

Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.

Tensile strength (MPa)

180
Yield strength (MPa)

Adapted from Fig.

400 7.16 (a) and (b),
Callister 7e.
120
300

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

Empirical relation: σy ~ C1/ 2

Alloying increases σy and TS

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 Strain hardening

Strain hardening (cold working) : a ductile metal becomes

harder and stronger as it is plastically deformed
force
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Ao blank Ad Ao
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Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
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Ao − Ad
%CW = x100
Ao

Strain hardening

Mechanisms: dislocation-dislocation
interactions
• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.

0.9 μm

Ti alloy after cold working:

4
 Strain hardening

Yield and tensile strength increase with cold work

Impact of Cold Work

As cold work is increased

Yield strength (σy)
increases.
Tensile strength (TS)
increases.
Ductility (%EL or %AR)
decreases.

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5
 Effect of heating after %CW

The influence of annealing

annealing temperature (ºC)
temperature on the tensile 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

tensile strength (MPa)

strength and ductility of a 600 60
tensile strength
brass alloy

ductility (%EL)
50
500
Recrystallization temperature 40
(RT): the temp at which
recrystallization just reaches 400 30
completion in 1 h ductility 20
300
Re Re Gr
co cry ain
ve sta Gr
ry lliz ow
ati th
on

Recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth

Recovery: dislocation motion reduces some of the stored

internal energy when metals are heated up
Recrystallization: formation of a new set of strain-free
grains and equiaxed grains that have low dislocation
densities
Grain growth: the strain-free grains will continue to grow
after recrystallization is complete

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 Recovery

Annihilation reduces dislocation density.

• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
diffuse and form
to regions a perfect
of tension atomic
extra half-plane plane.
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now τR
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right

Recrystallization

Driving force: internal energy of unstrained and strained grains

New crystals are formed that
• have a small disl. Density
• are small
• consume cold-work crystals

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.

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 Recrystallization (continue)

All cold-worked crystals are consumed

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

Recrystallization (continue)

Recrystallization-melting temp

8
 Grain growth

At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.

Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy) is
reduced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580C 580C
coefficient dependent
Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
at time t. d n − d on = Kt
Ostwald Ripening

TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

º
18

9
~

Grain growth

Driving force for grain

growth: reduction in
total energy

Grain growth via

atomic diffusion

Summary

Strength is increased by making dislocation motion difficult.

Particular ways to increase strength are to:
--decrease grain size
--solid solution strengthening
--precipitate strengthening
--cold work
Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density and
increase grain size.

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