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1150

Microfabric and mineralogical studies on the

stabilization of an expansive soil using cement by-
pass dust and some types of slags
Amer Ali Al-Rawas

Abstract: This paper describes the microfabric and mineralogical aspects of the expansive soil of Al-Khod (northern
Oman) treated with cement by-pass dust (CBPD), copper slag, slag-cement, and granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS).
First, the engineering properties and chemical and mineralogical composition of the untreated soil were determined.
The soil was then mixed with the additives at 3, 6, and 9% of the dry weight of the soil. The microfabric and mineral-
ogical characteristics of the treated soil were determined. The high amounts of calcium ions and calcium oxide, which
produces calcium ions, react with the clay particles through a cation exchange process resulting in the formation of ag-
gregations and reduction of the swell potential of the soil. Mineralogical tests on the treated samples indicated a gen-
eral reduction in all clay minerals peak intensities, particularly in the case of CBPD treated samples. The fabric of the
untreated soil is composed of dense clay matrices with no appearance of aggregations or ped formations with increas-
ing amounts of pore spaces. However, aggregations and few connectors were formed due to the addition of the stabiliz-
ers. Aggregations and bindings were formed for all of the soils treated with GBFS and for those with 9% additions of
CBPD and slag-cement. The mineralogical and microfabric results were correlated with the swell percent and swell
pressure of the treated samples. The formation of aggregations and reduction in clay minerals peak intensities resulted
in the reduction of the swell pressure and swell percent values.
Key words: microfabric, mineralogy, stabilization, expansive soils, SEM, XRD.

Résumé : Cet article décrit les aspects de microfabrique et de minéralogie du sol gonflant de Al-Khod (Oman du nord)
traité avec de la poussière de ciment de tamis (CBPD), du laitier de cuivre, du laitier de ciment, et du laitier de haut-
fourneau granulé (CBFS). On a d’abord déterminé les propriétés mécanique et chimiques et la composition minéralo-
gique de sol non traité. Le sol a alors été mélangé avec les additifs à 3, 6, et 9 % du poids sec du sol. Les caractéristi-
ques de la microfabrique et de la minéralogie du sol traité ont été déterminées. Les grandes quantités d’ions de calcium
et d’oxyde de calcium qui produisent des ions de calcium réagissent avec les particules d’argile par le processus
d’échange de cations résultant en la formation d’agrégats et la réduction du potentiel de gonflement du sol. Les essais
minéralogiques sur les échantillons traités ont indiqué une réduction généralisée des intensités de tous les pics minéra-
logiques, particulièrement dans le cas des échantillons traités au CBPD. La fabrique du sol non traité est composée de
matrices d’argile dense sans apparence d’agrégats ou de formations de peds avec l’accroissement des espaces intersti-
tiels. Cependant, des agrégats et quelques liens se sont formés par suite de l’addition d’agents stabilisants. Avec les ad-
ditions de GBFS et de 9 % de CBPD et du laitier de ciment, des agrégats et des liens se sont formés. Les résultats
minéralogiques et de microfabrique ont été corrélés avec le pourcentage de gonflement et la pression de gonflement
des échantillons traités. La formation des agrégats et la réduction des intensités des pics des minéraux ont résulté en la
réduction de la pression de gonflement et des valeurs de pourcentages de gonflement.
Mots clés : microfabrique, minéralogie, stabilisation, sols gonflants, SEM, XRD.

[Traduit par la Rédaction] Al-Rawas 1167

Introduction calcium ions. When such a stabilizer is added to expansive

The properties of expansive soils can be significantly
changed when treated with soil stabilizers such as lime, ce-
ment, cement by-pass dust, and other additives containing
Received 19 October 2000. Accepted 25 April 2002.
Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at
http://cgj.nrc.ca on 16 September 2002.
A.A. Al-Rawas. Department of Civil Engineering, College of
Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 33, Al-
Khod 123, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman.
(e-mail: ameraar@squ.edu.om).
soils, calcium ions increase in the interlayer of clays result-
ing in an attraction between the clay particles and the forma-
tion of aggregations or flocs. The cation exchange process
continues until all charges on the interlayer and edges are
satisfied. This addition is primarily responsible for enhanc-
ing the soil workability, but does not result in an increase in
strength (Sherwood 1993; Bell 1996).
Further additions of stabilizers lead to pozzolanic reac-
tions that occur between the calcium ions of the stabilizer
and the silica and alumina of the clay minerals resulting in
the formation of cementitious products such as calcium sili-
cate hydrates (CSH), calcium aluminate hydrates (CAH),

Can. Geotech. J. 39: 1150–1167 (2002) DOI: 10.1139/T02-046 © 2002 NRC Canada

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Al-Rawas
and calcium aluminium silicate hydrates (CASH). These
pozzolanic products contribute to the flocculation process by
bonding adjacent flocculated soil particles together, and as
curing occurs, they strengthen the soil. The nature of the ex-
changeable cation can have a significant effect in soils con-
taining smectite clay minerals (Bell and Coulthard 1990).
The stabilization of clayey soils depends on the type of soil,
type and amount of additive, water content, curing condi-
tions, method of application, and type of construction.
Literature review
Several investigations were carried out on stabilized soils
using scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) (Basma and
Tuncer 1991; Keshawarz and Dutta 1993; and Abduljauwad
1995). The main purpose of these investigations was to ob-
serve the changes in the microstructure of stabilized soils.
Basma and Tuncer (1991) carried out a study on the effect
of lime on volume change and compressibility of expansive
clays. Lime was added to clay soils at 3, 6, and 9% of the
dry weight of the soil. It was found that as the lime percent-
age increased, the soil became more granular. Keshawarz
and Dutta (1993), who investigated the effect of fly ash,
lime, and cement on the fabric of soils, reported that in the
case of untreated soil, the particles appear as a blocky ar-
rangement of loosely packed particles. However, the lime
treated soil showed a discernible aggregation of soil parti-
cles, while the cement treated soil showed an abundance of
tobermorite crystals. Spherical fly ash particles were ob-
served in the soil treated with fly ash. Abduljauwad (1995)
investigated the effect of lime and potassium nitrate on the
plasticity and swell potential of expansive clays. The stabi-
lizers were added to the clay soils at different percentages
(3, 5, and 8% of the dry weight of the soil). The results
showed that the addition of lime and potassium nitrate
caused flocculation of the clay particles and an increase in
their apparent grain size.
Previous work on clay mineralogy (Eades and Grim 1960;
Willoughby et al. 1968; Lambe and Whitman 1959; Mitchell
1976; Abduljauwad 1995; Bell 1996) was undertaken using
X-ray diffraction techniques to investigate the mineralogical
changes and identify the reaction products formed when
lime is added to clay soils. It was found that new reflections
were visible at d-spacings of 3.87, 3.67, 3.035, 1.619, and
1.582 Å (1 Å = 0.1 nm), which appeared to be indicative of
calcite, feldspars, kaolinite, and chlorite, respectively.
Abduljauwad (1995) showed that the major peaks of the clay
minerals (i.e., smectite, palygorskite, and illite) of untreated
soils were significantly altered upon treatment. For example,
in the case of potassium nitrate treatment, the smectite clay
mineral peaks almost disappeared.
The author conducted a literature survey that revealed the
lack of detailed comparative studies on the microfabric and
mineralogy of expansive soils treated with various stabiliz-
ers. Most of the studies carried out by Collins and McGown
(1974, 1983) and Collins (1984) were on the microstructure
of untreated natural soils. Microstructure studies on un-
treated Omani expansive soils were published by Al-Rawas
and McGown (1999). Furthermore, Al-Rawas et al. (2002)
carried out a study on the stabilization of expansive soils us-
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1151
ing cement by-pass dust (CBPD), copper slag, slag-cement,
and granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS). The study focused
on the engineering and chemical characteristics of the
treated soil. However, no work was published on the micro-
fabric and mineralogy of stabilized Omani expansive soils.
Therefore, there was a need to undertake these detailed in-
vestigations to fully characterize the behavior of the treated
soil.
Objectives
The main objectives of this study were (1) to investigate
the microfabric and mineralogical characteristics of Al-Khod
(northern Oman) soil treated with CBPD, copper slag, slag-
cement, and GBFS, and (2) to correlate the microfabric and
mineralogical results with the swell potential (swell percent
and swell pressure) measured for the same soil used by Al-
Rawas et al. (2002).
Materials
Site selection and sampling
The site selected for obtaining the samples is located at
Al-Khod (about 40 km west of Muscat and approximately
10 km west of Seeb International Airport) in northern Oman.
The site was selected because it contains expansive soils that
were encountered in a trial pit at a depth of about 1 m and
overlain by a layer of sand and gravel. The disturbed expan-
sive soil was excavated, placed in plastic bags, and trans-
ported to Sultan Qaboos University for testing.
Properties of the untreated soil
Chemical properties
The chemical and geotechnical properties of the untreated
soil are given in Table 1. The chemical analyses included
pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), and exchangeable cat-
ions. The chemical composition tests were performed in ac-
cordance with Omanian Standard 25 (Ministry of Commerce
and Industry, Oman 1979), which is equivalent to ASTM
C114-99 (ASTM 1999). The exchangeable cations were ex-
tracted with ammonium acetate, with subsequent determina-
tion of the cations by standard methods (Chapman 1965).
The Na+ and K+ were measured by the flame photometry
method, and Ca2+ and Mg2+ were measured by atomic ab-
sorption spectrophotometry. The CEC was measured by the
sodium acetate method. The CEC, Na+, and Ca2+ values of
the soil are 70 (mequiv./100 g), 41%, and 6%, respectively
(Table 1). The reason for only determining Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+,
and K+ is because of their importance in the swelling phe-
nomenon. From a chemical point of view, this indicates that
the soil has the potential to swell due to the high percentage
of Na+ (Grim 1968).
Geotechnical properties
All basic geotechnical tests were performed in accordance
with British Standard 1377 (British Standards Institution
1990). Based on the Casagrande plasticity chart, the soil was
classified as inorganic silt of high plasticity (MH). The most
common swelling potential tests involve the use of a one-
dimensional consolidation apparatus or oedometer, which
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1152 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 39, 2002

was used in this study. There are no universal standard test- Table 1. Physical and chemical properties of the untreated soil.
ing methods for determining the swell percent and swell
Values and
pressure. Nelson and Miller (1992) summarized the various
Characteristics descriptions
testing methods used by previous researchers. The methods
used in this study were developed by the author (Al-Rawas Colour Yellowish
1993; Basma et al. 1998; Al-Rawas et al. 2002). Depth (m) 1.2
To prepare remolded samples, the soil was first cut into Natural water content (%) 8.9
small pieces and air-dried for 24 h. It was then pulverized Field dry unit weight (kN/m3) 17
repeatedly using a plastic hammer. Because of its cohesive Specific gravity 2.8
nature, the soil was then fully soaked in water for another Percent passing no. 200 seive 60
24 h. After soaking, the soil disintegrated into its individual Clay content (less than 2 µm) (%) 20
components and additional lumps were broken by hand. The Liquid limit (%) 50
soil was then placed in an oven at 105°C for 24 h to ensure Plastic limit (%) 30
complete dryness. The dry soil was further pulverized to Plasticity index 20
< 2 mm. At this stage, the soil was ready for remolding. Clay activity 1.03
An amount of dry soil required for the natural dry unit Swell pressure (kPa) 250
weight was weighed and mixed with stabilizers at 3, 6, and Swell percent 9.4
9% by dry weight of the soil. The required amount of water Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) MH
was also weighed. The soil-additive mixture was thoroughly Compaction properties (approximate)
mixed and then placed into the mold and lightly compacted Optimum water content (%) 21
using a wooden hammer (25 blows) to exactly fit the cutting Maximum dry weight (kN/m3) 17.5
ring. All remolded specimens were left in a desiccator for Exchangeable cations (%)
24 h before testing. The swell percent and swell pressure Sodium (Na) 41
tests were conducted on samples compacted at their natural Calcium (Ca) 6
moisture content in the consolidation ring. Magnesium (Mg) 1
The swell percent of each test specimen was measured us- Potassium (K) 1
ing the loaded-swell method (Al-Rawas 1993). In this test, Cation exchange capacity (CEC) (mequiv./100g) 70
the specimen was loaded to a seating pressure of 25 kPa pH 9.2
(equivalent to the exiting overburden pressure) and then
flooded with water and allowed to swell. Readings were
taken until full swell was attained. The increase in vertical (0.1%). It is generally known that the swelling potential of a
height of a sample, expressed as a percentage, due to the in- soil is greatly influenced by its chemical composition. The
crease in moisture content was designated as the “swell per- higher the CEC and Na+, the higher the swelling of the soil
cent.” The swell pressure of each test specimen was and vice-versa. On the other hand, the higher the Ca2+, the
measured using the constant volume method (Al-Rawas lower the swelling potential of the soil. Based on the chemi-
1993). The specimen placement conditions were the same as cal results alone, it is expected that copper slag will increase
in the swell percent test. The specimen was then flooded the swell potential of the soil due to its high amount of Na+,
with water while the specimen volume was kept constant. while the other additives will reduce the swell potential of
Loads were applied using sand until deformation ceased. At the soil by varying degrees.
this stage, the swell pressure was calculated as the load re- Al-Rawas et al. (2002) performed swell potential tests on
quired to prevent swelling divided by the area of the speci- samples treated with the additives used in this study (Ta-
men. For detailed information on the swelling tests, the ble 3). The results showed that the GBFS was the most ef-
reader is referred to Basma et al. (1998). The soil showed a fective additive, since it reduced the swell pressure from 250
swell pressure of 250 kPa and a swell percent of 9.4%. to 162 kPa at the addition rate of 3%. On the other hand, the
addition of copper slag caused an increase in the swell pres-
Additives used in the study sure by about 100 kPa. CBPD and slag-cement treated sam-
In this study, CBPD (a by-product), copper slag (a by- ples produced similar swell pressure values with the
product), slag-cement, and GBFS were utilized. CBPD, slag- exception of the 3% slag-cement treated sample, which ex-
cement, and GBFS were supplied by the Oman Cement hibited a swell pressure of 311 kPa. All additives reduced
Company. GBFS is imported by the Oman Cement Com- the swell percent by varying degrees, except for copper slag,
pany from Italy for the production of slag-cement. Copper which caused a slight increase in the swell percent. The
slag was produced as a waste product during the extraction maximum reduction in swell percent was achieved by mix-
of copper in Sohar (northern Oman). ing the soil with 9% CBPD.
Al-Rawas et al. (2002) carried out a full chemical analysis
of all the additives used in this study (Table 2). Copper slag Methods of testing
has the highest value of exchangeable Na+ (38%) and the
lowest percentage of Ca2+ (4%). Slag-cement and GBFS Instrumentation — scanning electron microscope
showed relatively close values of CEC, Na+, and Ca2+, (SEM)
which are significantly different from those of copper slag. The present study is based entirely on the use of a JEOL
CBPD showed extremely high values of CEC (140 JSM-840A SEM utilizing the secondary electron mode.
mequiv./100g) and Ca2+ (92%) and the lowest value of Na+ Magnification ranges from × 20 to × 5000 were used for the

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Al-Rawas 1153

Table 2. Some chemical characteristics of the additives used (Al-Rawas et al. 2000).
Additives Cement Granulated blast
Characteristics by-pass dust (CBPD) Copper slag Slag-cement furnace slag (GBFS)
pH — 9.1 10.3 8.8
CEC (mequiv./100g) 140 76 55 67
Exchangeable cations (%)a
Sodium (Na) 0.1 38 15 10
Calcium (Ca) 92 4 27 22
Magnesium (Mg) 4.9 2 3 1
Potassium (K) 0.3 2 2 1
Compounds (%)
SiO2 15.84 35.70 31.50 33.97
Al2O3 3.57 1.43 8.50 14.51
Fe2O3 2.76 47.35 1.90 1.43
CaO 63.76 9.40 47.60 41.24
MgO 1.93 4.37 5.10 7.56
SO3 1.65 0.28 2.90 2.22
K2O 2.99 0.22 0.33 0.33
Na2O 0.33 0.15 0.22 0.20
TiO2 0.48 0.98 0.39 0.54
Mn2O3 0.07 0.04 0.33 0.31
Cl 1.09 0.06 0.03 0.01
LOI 5.38 — 1.30 1.71
Note: LOI, loss on ignition.
a
Only Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ were determined.

Table 3. Swell potential results of the treated soil (Al-Rawas et Al-Rawas and McGown (1999) made an extensive review
al. 2000). of the drying techniques (Sides and Barden 1971; Collins
1978; Zein 1985) and concluded that there is no single tech-
Additives (%) Swell percent Swell pressure (kPa) nique that can be claimed to be the best for specimen drying.
Untreated soil 9.4 250 Air drying was therefore used in this study. Two specimens
Cement by-pass dust from each sample were tested, one representing the vertical
3 5.1 259 plane and the other representing the horizontal plane. Four
6 6.9 261 specimens were cut for each sample, two specimens to rep-
9 4.1 202 resent the vertical plane and the other two the horizontal
Copper slag plane, as suggested by Collins (1978). Prismatic specimens
3 10.2 353 approximately 1 cm3 were carefully cut using a sharp knife.
6 10.6 354 The specimens were dried slowly at a relatively constant
9 11.9 356 temperature of approximately 25°C over a period of about
Slag-cement two weeks.
3 6.0 311 The dried specimen was then fractured by cutting a V-
6 5.0 262 shaped groove around the middle of the specimen and apply-
9 5.0 200 ing a combined bending and pulling action as suggested by
Granulated blast Smart (1967) and Smart and Tovey (1981, 1982). The base
furnace slag of the specimen was then trimmed flat and cemented to the
3 7.4 162 SEM aluminum stub. After mounting, the specimen was sub-
6 7.6 189 jected to between 50 and 100 cellotape applications and re-
9 8.0 190 movals to remove debris and particles damaged during
fracturing; this process was referred to as peeling by Barden
and Sides (1971). The peeled specimen surface was vacuum
coated with gold to make it electrically conductive to pre-
examination of the soil fabric. This SEM allows the viewing vent charge build up on the specimen. Following this, the
of relatively large specimens up to 10 × 10 × 5 mm in size. specimens were kept in a sealed plastic box and stored in a
desiccator to avoid contamination from the surroundings for
Sample preparation for SEM 24 h before testing. Direct handling of the specimens was
The samples were initially prepared following the same kept to a minimum at all stages to avoid contamination.
procedures performed for the swell percent and swell pres-
sure tests as described in the section entitled “Properties of Microfabric characterization
the untreated soil” except that the samples were not tested Collins and McGown (1983) developed a microfabric
for swelling. characterization scheme, which was used in this study to de-

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1154
scribe the microfabric features of the specimens tested. The
“elementary particle arrangements” involve interaction be-
tween a small number of like constituent particles of clay,
granular, or organic matter, and a number of subforms and
subdivisions are thus identified. The “particle assemblages”
are units of particle organization and have definable physical
boundaries. They consist of one or more forms of elemen-
tary particle arrangement or smaller particle assemblages.
Basic and higher order assemblages are identified with the
latter representing higher levels of particle assemblages or-
ganization. Subforms and subdivisions are defined in each
case. The “pore spaces” occur within, between, and across
the various particle arrangements and are classified based on
Collins and McGown (1983) scheme.
Instrumentation — X-ray diffraction (XRD)
The X-ray diffractometer used in this study was a Philips
PW1700 automated powder diffractometer. The generator
settings were 40 kV and 40 mA and CuKα radiation, λ =
1.5418 Å was used. A scanning rate of 2° 2θ per minute
from 2 to 35° 2θ was used for all samples. The X-ray
diffractometer was controlled by a µPDP11 computer that
gave both a trace of the X-ray patterns of the minerals and a
computer output listing the d-spacings, angle of diffraction,
intensities, etc.
Sample preparation and treatment for XRD
Sample preparation consisted of separating the clay frac-
tion, preparing oriented samples, and treating the oriented
samples. The soil was initially air dried for several days,
then it was crushed until it passed a no. 200 sieve (75 mm).
About 15 g of the sieved material was placed in a beaker
containing 600–800 mL of distilled water, and a few drops
of a dispersing agent (sodium hexametaphosphate) were
added. Then the suspension was stirred thoroughly and left
for at least 6–8 h. The top 4 cm of the suspension was
then transferred into 50 mL centrifuge tubes. Clay frac-
tions (< 2 µm) were obtained by centrifuge fractionation
(5000 rpm for 30 min).
The procedures used for the preparation of oriented sam-
ples and their chemical and heat treatments were as sug-
gested by Whittig and Allardice (1986) and Brown and
Brindley (1980). For the preparation of oriented samples on
glass slides, 100 mg of the clay fraction was mixed with
1 mL of distilled water and stirred thoroughly. Approxi-
mately 50 mg of the clay in the suspension was then care-
fully transferred onto a 2.6 × 2.3 cm glass slide. The clay
particles were allowed to settle freely on the slide. Similarly,
the remaining 50 mg was also transferred onto another slide.
The samples mounted on the slides were allowed to dry be-
fore examination.
Initially, the samples mounted on the slides were exam-
ined in three forms; as an oriented clay sample (untreated),
as an oriented clay sample treated with ethylene glycol, and
as an oriented clay sample heated to 550°C for 2 h. One of
the prepared clay slides was used for both the untreated and
heat treated samples, while the other was used for the sam-
ple treated with ethylene glycol. Two drops of ethylene gly-
col were directly applied on the clay film, which was left for
24 h before testing. This technique was used because it was
simple and effective. Ethylene glycol and heat treatments
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were used to provide additional information essential for the
identification of clay minerals.
For the preparation of the samples treated with various ad-
ditives, 100 mg of the clay fraction extracted earlier was
mixed with each additive (after grinding to a powder form)
at 3, 6, and 9% by dry weight of the clay. Two glass slides
containing approximately equal amounts of additive treated
samples were prepared as described earlier. No ethylene gly-
col or heat treatment was used herein.
Results
Description of the micrographs
Untreated samples
Figure 1 shows SEM micrographs of the untreated sam-
ples that were taken at different magnifications. The general
fabric of the sample is composed mainly of clay matrix with
an appreciable number of granular clothed grains embedded
within the system (Fig. 1a). At an intermediate magnifica-
tion, the fabric of the sample is composed of very dense clay
matrix with sand grains within the matrix (Fig. 1b). Pore
spaces of various types and sizes are clearly seen. A dense
clay matrix associated with discernible pore spaces domi-
nates the fabric of the sample when observed with high mag-
nification (Fig. 1c). At all levels of magnifications, no
aggregations or connectors were observed.
Samples treated with 3% additives
Figure 2 exhibits the soil fabric with low magnification
(×160) for samples treated with 3% of the additives used.
The fabric of the CBPD stabilized sample (Fig. 2a) revealed
a continuous mass of clay matrix with few granular grains,
while pore spaces are not visible. Figure 2b represents the
fabric of the sample treated with copper slag, consisting of
masses of clay, granular matrices, and aggregations. The
granular grains are clothed and embedded within aggregates.
Intra-assemblage pore spaces are visible. Figure 2c reveals
that the slag-cement treated sample is composed mainly of
extensive clay matrices, whereas the fabric of the sample
treated with GBFS exhibits a clear aggregation that is gener-
ally sub-rounded in shape and approximately 100–250 µm in
diameter (Fig. 2d).
With medium magnification (×500), the CBPD stabilized
sample had a continuous clay matrix with rare appearances
of interassemblage pore spaces (Fig. 3a). An aggregation of
sub-rounded shape (≈ 30–50 µm in diameter) was observed.
A clay matrix associated with intra-assemblage pore spaces
dominates the fabric of the copper slag treated sample
(Fig. 3b). Figure 3c reveals that the sample stabilized with
slag-cement consists mainly of extensive masses of clay ma-
trices with few partly discernible clay aggregations that were
relatively small in size (≈ 20–25 µm in diameter). The GBFS
stabilized sample is composed of an irregular large aggrega-
tion and clay matrix with interassemblage pore spaces
(Fig. 3d).
When the CBPD stabilized sample was examined at
higher magnification (Fig. 4a), very dense clay matrices
with few interassemblage pore spaces were observed. The
copper slag treated sample revealed discernable clay matrices
with few granular grains (Fig. 4b). Aggregations interacting
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Fig. 1. SEM micrographs for untreated samples (a) magnification × 160; (b) magnification × 500; (c) magnification × 2000.

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Fig. 2. SEM micrographs (magnification × 160) for samples treated with 3% of (a) cement by-pass dust (CBPD); (b) copper slag; (c) slag-cement; and (d) granulated blast fur-
nace slag (GBFS).

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Fig. 3. SEM micrographs (magnification × 500) for samples treated with 3% of (a) cement by-pass dust (CBPD); (b) copper slag; (c) slag-cement; and (d) granulated blast fur-
nace slag (GBFS).

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Fig. 4. SEM micrographs (magnification × 1000) for samples treated with 3% of (a) cement by-pass dust (CBPD); (b) copper slag;
and (c) slag-cement.

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Al-Rawas
with the clay particle matrix were clearly seen for the GBFS
stabilized sample (Fig. 4c). Most of these aggregations were
rounded to sub-rounded in shape, with considerable varia-
tion in size (≈ 30–75 µm in diameter).
Samples treated with 6% additives
The micrographs taken at low magnification (×160) for
the samples treated with 6% of various stabilizers show a
general fabric that consists of dense small aggregations with
granular grains. With magnification at ×500, CBPD
(Fig. 5a), slag-cement (Fig. 5c), and GBFS (Fig. 5d) stabi-
lized samples showed discernible clay aggregations associ-
ated with pore spaces of different types and sizes. The
aggregations were small in size (≈ 20 µm in diameter). The
development of connectors can be clearly seen in the GBFS
stabilized sample (Fig. 5d). A clustered clay system domi-
nates the fabric of the copper slag treated sample (Fig. 5b).
At higher magnification, interconnected aggregations with
interassemblage and intra-assemblage pore spaces were ob-
served for all of the treated samples (Fig. 6). The slag-
cement treated sample showed visible grains and clay parti-
cles in addition to the aggregations (Fig. 6c). The aggrega-
tions appearing at this level were mostly irregular in shape
and large in size (≈ 20–60 µm in diameter).
Samples treated with 9% additives
The micrographs of the samples stabilized at 9% exhibited
a continuous mass of dense clay matrices and aggregations
under low SEM magnification. With medium magnification
(×500), the CBPD treated sample reveals discernible very
large aggregations (≈ 100–130 µm in diameter), mostly ir-
regular in shape, interconnected with each other with
interassemblage pore spaces (Fig. 7a). An extensive and
continuous mass of clay matrix dominates the fabric of the
sample treated with copper slag (Fig. 7b). Figure 7c repre-
sents the fabric of the slag-cement treated sample composed
mainly of connectors, some aggregations, and granular
grains with some interassemblage pore spaces. A blocky ar-
rangement of partly discernible irregular aggregations was
observed in the GBFS treated sample (Fig. 7d).
Figure 8a shows that the CBPD stabilized sample is com-
posed mainly of aggregations, approximately 30–50 µm in
diameter, with large pore spaces of interassemblage type,
when examined under high magnification. At the same level,
the fabric of the sample stabilized with copper slag exhibited
a clay matrix with intra-elemental pore spaces (Fig. 8b).
Connectors showing clearly the interaction between the clay
particles and the granular grains were observed in the slag-
cement treated sample (Fig. 8c). The GBFS stabilized sam-
ple revealed similar fabric to that observed with medium
magnification.
XRD results
Identification of minerals
A representative X-ray pattern of a sample of Al-Khod
clay is shown in Fig. 9, detailing some stages of ethylene
glycol and heat treatment. The clay mineral groups were
identified in the clay of Al-Khod by their characteristics
basal reflections: smectite (14.59 Å expands to 17.01 Å after
glycolation and collapses to 9.95 Å upon heat treatment for
2 h at 550°C), palygorskite (10.98 Å and unaffected by
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glycolation, and its density decreases at 350°C and disap-
pears at 550°C), illite (10.04 Å and unaffected by
glycolation or heat treatment for 2 h at 550°C), kaolinite
(7.21 Å and unaffected by glycolation and disappears after
heating at 550°C), and serpentine (7.21 Å and unaffected by
glycolation or heat treatment for 2 h at 550°C). The figure
also shows quartz (3.34 Å) and calcite (3.03 Å). The data
support earlier reported results (Al-Rawas et al. 1998).
Effect of additives
The XRD patterns of the treated samples are shown in
Fig. 10. Generally speaking, there was a reduction in the
peak intensity of most of the treated samples, as can be seen
by the reduction in peak heights and broadness of some of
the peaks, particularly for the samples treated with 9% addi-
tives. A significant increase in the broadness of the smectite,
palygorskite, and illite peaks was observed, particularly with
the addition of CBPD and copper slag. Similar behavior
caused by these two additives was observed for the kaolinite
peak. However, the mineral peaks of samples treated with
slag-cement showed minor changes with respect to peak
broadness. None of the peaks of the untreated sample disap-
peared due to treatment except for the peak corresponding to
gypsum, which disappeared when treated with GBFS. It was
noted that with the addition of 9% slag-cement, the peaks
shifted away to the right from their original positions while
maintaining the same patterns. This could be due to instru-
ment distortion during the X-ray scanning process or condi-
tions of the sample.
The changes in peak intensities mentioned above were
due to the addition of the stabilizers. The untreated sample,
which was composed mainly of clay fraction (approximately
< 2µm), exhibited clear and sharp peaks that correspond to
clay minerals present in the sample. However, with the addi-
tion of the stabilizers, chemical reactions took place between
the additive and the clay resulting in the reduction of the
clay minerals intensities.
Discussion
Untreated samples
The untreated soil exhibited a swell percent of 9.4 and a
swell pressure of 250 kPa. The high swell potential values
measured were mainly attributed to three major factors:
chemical composition, fabric, and mineralogy of the soil.
The chemical analysis revealed that Na+, the most active cat-
ion, was the predominant cation (41%), while Ca2+, which is
known to be stable, constituted only 6%. From a microfabric
point of view, the soil is composed of a dense clay matrix
with pore spaces of various types and sizes with no aggrega-
tions or connectors. Mineralogically speaking, smectite, the
most active clay mineral, along with palygorskite and illite,
which are intermediate in swelling, was present in the soil,
thereby making it expansive. Furthermore, the existence of
expanding clay minerals with predominantly Na+ in a dense
clay matrix associated with pore spaces with little sign of
aggregations or connectors explains the expansive nature of
the soil and the high swell potential values measured.
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Fig. 5. SEM micrographs (magnification × 500) for samples treated with 6% of (a) cement by-pass dust (CBPD); (b) copper slag; (c) slag-cement; and (d) granulated blast fur-
nace slag (GBFS).

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Fig. 6. SEM micrographs (magnification × 1000) for samples treated with 6% of (a) cement by-pass dust (CBPD); (b) copper slag; (c) slag-cement; and (d) granulated blast
furnace slag (GBFS).

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Fig. 7. SEM micrographs (magnification × 500) for samples treated with 9% of (a) cement by-pass dust (CBPD); (b) copper slag; (c) slag-cement; and (d) granulated blast fur-
nace slag (GBFS).

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Fig. 8. SEM micrographs (magnification × 1000) for samples treated with 9% of (a) cement by-pass dust (CBPD); (b) copper slag; (c) slag-cement; and (d) granulated blast
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furnace slag (GBFS).

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Fig. 9. XRD patterns of Al-Khod clay with different treatments.
Cement by-pass dust (CBPD) treated samples
The addition of 3 and 6% CBPD to the soil reduced the
swell percent from 9.4 to 5.1 and 6.9, respectively. However,
no reduction in swell pressure was recorded. The addition of
9% of CBPD has caused reduction in both the swell percent
and swell pressure by 5.3 and 48 kPa, respectively (Table 3).
The reason for not detecting a reduction in swell pressure at
3 and 6% CBPD is probably due to the method of measuring
the pressure, which was through the use of dead loads rather
than a load cell. In addition, since the reduction at 9% addi-
tion was only 48 kPa, therefore, the expected reduction in
pressure at 3 and 6% should be small.
Examination of the SEM micrographs of the treated sam-
ples showed no evidence of alteration in the structure of the
samples treated with 3% CBPD. However, with additions of
6 and 9% of CBPD, aggregations of particles were formed,
particularly in the case of the 9% addition where aggrega-
tions were large and discernible.
The XRD results showed that CBPD caused significant re-
ductions in the XRD mineral peak intensities, particularly
for smectite clay minerals. In addition, the X-ray patterns of
all of the CBPD treated samples were almost completely
overlapped. This indicates that from a mineralogical point of
view there is no apparent effect due to the addition of differ-
ent percentages of CBPD. Examination of the chemical anal-
ysis of CBPD showed that it possesses extremely high
amounts of exchangeable Ca2+ (92%) and CaO (63.76%),
which produces calcium ions, that react with the clay parti-
cles through a cation exchange process resulting in the for-
mation of aggregations as can be seen from the SEM
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Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 39, 2002
micrographs (Figs. 5–8). It is believed that the reduction in
the minerals intensities, and the formation of aggregations
had contributed to the reduction in swell percent and swell
pressure.
Copper slag treated samples
All of the samples stabilized with copper slag showed a
marked increase in the swell pressure (about 100 kPa) and a
slight increase in the swell percent (Table 3). The copper
slag contains very high amounts of Na+ (38%) and low
amounts of Ca2+ (4%) and CaO (9.40%). The fabric of the
sample is mainly composed of an extensive mass of clay ma-
trices associated with pore spaces of various types and sizes.
Few aggregations and connectors were observed at the addi-
tion of 3 and 6%. It is surprising to see that most of the min-
eral peaks of the samples treated with copper slag were
weaker than other treated samples while the swell percent
and swell pressure of the treated samples increased signifi-
cantly. From the chemical analysis it appears that Na+ has
promoted the activity of the treated soil, thereby increasing
its swell percent and swell pressure. This has been comple-
mented by the fact that the fabric was composed mainly of
dense clay matrices, which promote swelling.
Slag-cement treated samples
The behavior of slag-cement treated samples is generally
similar to that of the samples treated with CBPD. It is inter-
esting to observe an initial increase in the swell pressure by
50 kPa with the addition of 3% slag-cement. However, a de-
crease of about 60 kPa was achieved at the addition of 9%.
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Fig. 10. XRD patterns for an untreated sample and samples treated with additives.

With regard to swell percent values, a consistent reduction Ca2+ (27%) and CaO (47.60%) and relatively low amounts
was measured with all of the additions. Chemically, the of exchangeable Na+ (15%).
slag-cement contained appreciable amounts of exchangeable The microfabric features are characterized by the presence

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1166
of a clay matrix and granular grains with development of
some aggregations at the addition of 6% slag-cement. With
the addition of 9%, clear clay aggregations, connectors, and
possibly silt grains were observed. The XRD traces (Fig. 10)
indicated slight reduction in the clay minerals peak intensi-
ties (palygorskite and illite), due to the addition of slag-
cement.
From the above results, it appeared that with the addition
of 3% slag-cement, no significant alteration occurred to the
fabric, however, with the addition of 9%, aggregations and
connectors were formed, all of which, along with granular
grains, contributed to the reduction of the soil’s swell poten-
tial.
Granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) treated samples
The GBFS was the most effective additive as seen by the
major reduction in the swell pressure values at all three per-
centage additions. The GBFS contained 22% of exchange-
able Ca2+ and 41.24% of CaO and l0% of exchangeable Na+.
The SEM micrographs of the treated samples clearly showed
the formation of aggregations and connectors and the pres-
ence of granular grains with the additions of 3, 6, and 9% of
GBFS. It is believed that the development of aggregations
had significantly contributed to the reduction of the swell
percent and swell pressure. The XRD results showed a gen-
eral reduction in the clay minerals’ peak intensities, thereby
reducing the minerals’ potential for expansion.
Geotechnical significance of results
The geotechnical engineer is concerned with the evalua-
tion of the swelling potential of expansive soil and determin-
ing the optimum solutions to eliminate or reduce swelling to
a reasonable limit. The results of this study formed a frame-
work for the key elements controlling the soil’s behavior. It
showed that the untreated soil consisted of expansive clay
minerals including smectite, palygorskite, and illite associ-
ated with high and low amounts of Na+ and Ca2+, respec-
tively. Further, its fabric was composed of dense clay
matrices with no appearance of aggregations or connectors.
These conditions are prerequisites for a potentially expan-
sive soil, and the information is very useful to the
geotechnical engineer in the preliminary evaluation of the
soil behavior.
With regard to the other aspect concerning the evaluation
of soil additives, the results showed that the amounts of Na+,
Ca2+, and CaO play a major role in this respect. For exam-
ple, copper slag, which contained the highest amount of Na+
and the lowest amounts of Ca2+ and CaO, increased the
swelling potential of the soil, whereas GBFS (which has low
amounts of Na+ and relatively high amounts of CaO) re-
duced the swelling potential. This is because additions of
calcium ions contribute to the reduction in intensity of
smectite, palygorskite, and illite clay minerals and alter the
dense clay matrices of the soil to form aggregations of vari-
ous sizes, and thereby reduce the swell potential of the soil.
Therefore, the determination of the chemical composition of
a soil additive is very crucial in the stabilization process.
The results gave a full picture of the key elements involved
in stabilization and the relationship between them.
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Conclusions
Based on the results obtained from the investigations pre-
sented in this paper, the following conclusions can be drawn.
(1) The swell potential of the untreated soil can be ex-
plained by the high percentage of sodium smectite clay min-
eral, along with palygorskite and illite. Furthermore, the soil
is composed of dense clay matrices with no appearance of
aggregations or connectors, which provide strength to the
soil against swelling.
(2) Granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) treated samples
exhibited the lowest swell pressure, whereas copper slag
treated samples showed the highest values of swell pressure.
The 9% addition of CBPD and slag-cement caused a marked
reduction in the swell pressure values. Therefore, copper
slag is not recommended for the stabilization of expansive
soils.
(3) A high percentage of Na+ and a low percentage of
Ca2+ promotes swelling and vice versa. The chemical com-
position of stabilizing materials proved to be a good indica-
tor of the effectiveness of these materials.
(4) All additions of GBFS and 9% additions of CBPD and
slag-cement resulted in the formation of aggregations or
flocculations, which reduced the swelling potential of the
soil.
(5) The XRD results showed a general reduction in all
clay minerals’ peak intensities particularly in the case of
CBPD treated samples. However, it appeared that there was
no clear correlation between the reduction in peak intensities
and the swell potential values.
(6) The swell potential, mineralogical composition, and
microfabric of the stabilized soil gave a full scale character-
ization of the soil behavior. However, performing swell po-
tential tests to measure the swell pressure and swell percent
of the stabilized soil will be the most reliable method for as-
sessing the actual swell potential.
Acknowledgment
The author would like to thank Mr. Nasser Al-Busaidi, an
undergraduate student in the Department of Civil Engi-
neering, and the technical staff of the Department of Earth
Sciences (Mr. Saif Al-Mamari and Ms. Samirah Al-
Kharousi) and the Department of Civil Engineering (Mr.
Yaqoob Al-Alawi) for their help in performing the scanning
electron microscope and X-ray diffraction tests.
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