Int. J., Vol. x, No.

x, 202x 1

Survey on Throughput Enhancement Techniques for Real Time

Wireless Link Deployment

Thiyagarajan Krishnan*
Associate Professor
Department of ECE
Sona College of Technology, Salem. India.
Email: krishthiyagu@yahoo.co.in
*Corresponding author

Vetrivel Chelian. T
Ph.D Scholar,
Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai. India.
Email: vetrvl@gmail.com.

Abstract: Over the recent decades, the emergence of advanced wireless technologies has
attracted many researchers and industries to explore in the field of next generation wireless
links towards capacity optimization with minimal energy requirements. This gave
beginning to a new dimension of research in the field of “Green yet high capacity links”
which can connect our physical world to the digital reality with a support from environment
friendly networks. The phenomenal growth in wireless applications and technology
development also demands a step up in link capacity. This paper focuses on reviewing
recent concepts and methodologies to improve link capacity for the next generation wireless
systems. The main aim of this paper is to provide a conceptual understanding about the
impact of modulation techniques and error control codes towards capacity improvement.

Keywords: Hierarchical Modulation, OFDM, FBMC, LDPC, Polar codes, Turbo codes,
Spatial modulation.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Thiyagarajan, K., Vetrivel chelian,
T.(XXXX) ‘Survey on Throughput Enhancement Techniques for Real Time Wireless Link
Deployment’, Int. J. Wireless and Mobile Computing, Vol. X, No. Y, pp.xxxx–xxxx.

Biographical notes: K.Thiyagarajan received his BE in Electronics and Communication

Engineering from Erode Sengunthar Engineering College in the year 2005 and ME in
communication systems from PSG College of Technology Coimbatore in the year 2011. He
completed his Ph.D under Anna University chennai in 2016. Currently he is working as
Associate Professor in ECE Department, Sona College of Technology, Salem, India. He is
having a teaching experience of more than 13 years in various academic institutions. His
areas of interest include wireless communication, Wavelet variants based Signal and Image
Processing, Image Processing and RF circuit design.

Mr.T. Vetrivel Chelian completed his bachelor's degree in Electronics and Communication
Engineering from Raja College of Technology, Madurai in 2015. He then pursued his
masters in communication systems from College of Engineering, Guindy, Chennai in the
year 2017. Currently he is a Full-time doctoral candidate in Thiagarajar college of
engineering, Madurai, India. His current research interests are array signal processing and
Holographic MIMO systems.

Copyright © 200x Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

Int. J., Vol. x, No. x, 202x
1 Introduction
The next generation wireless applications
and services such as UHDTV, Internet telephony,
massive online gaming, e-Health, and vehicle to
vehicle communications etc., require a
considerable bandwidth for its seamless operation.
The existing wireless frame works may necessitate
supplementary channel capacity to manage all kind
of next generation applications and services
(Samimi and Rappaport 2016). As a result the
future requisite is the need of better modulation and
coding techniques. Figure 1 shows the typical
wireless communication system model consisting
of Transmitter, channel and receiver. Encoder and
modulator are the two most important modules of
a transmitter. The encoder performs clever way of
handling source information and mitigates the
effects of channel noise. This is achieved by using
source coding and channel coding operations at the
transmitter side.
The maximum information that can be
reliably transmitted from source to destination is
the channel capacity of the system (Shannon 1948).
Equation (1) is known as Shannon-Hartley channel
capacity equation. Here C is the capacity of the
channel expressed in bits per second (bps). B is the
bandwidth of the channel expressed in Hertz (Hz),
S and N are the average received signal power and
noise power respectively. The encoded bit
information is embedded inside a carrier signal
with appropriate frequency. The type of
Modulation employed at the transmitter decides
how well the data is packed in the available
bandwidth. Modulation technique opted should
provide both high spectral efficiency as well as
ample energy efficiency.
 S
C  B log 2 1   (1)
 N
The techniques for enhancing wireless
network capacity may fall under any of the
following three categories. 1) Exploiting more
radio spectrum, 2) Geographical reuse of spectrum,
3) Expanding the throughput for every MHz of
spectrum inside a given geographic territory
(Clarke 2014). This paper concentrates more on
reviewing the recent throughput enhancement
Copyright © 200x Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
2
techniques for a link capacity between two wireless
nodes with more emphasis on energy efficiency.
The remainder of this article is organized
as follows: In section 2, a detailed investigation of
recent modulation techniques such as Hierarchical
Modulation (HM), Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM), Filter-Bank Multi-Carrier
(FBMC) and Faster Than Nyquist (FTN) signalling
are presented. Section 3 is devoted for the
discussion of recent advancements in error control
coding techniques. A brief understanding of
various types of Spatial Modulation (SM)
techniques are presented in section 4. Finally,
conclusions are drawn in section 5.
2 Modulation Techniques
With the accelerated advancement of next
generation wireless networks, high capacity
communication systems have been the focus of
recent research. It is expected that the evolution of
mobile broadband services will further accelerate
the demand for high capacity wireless networks
with higher channel bit rate. Use of advanced
modulation formats can reduce the required
bandwidth drastically which means for a given
bandwidth one could improve capacity
significantly. Such capacity improvements can
easily be achieved by using OFDM and other
multi-carrier methods (Zhang et al., 2010).
2.1 Hierarchical Modulation
Hierarchical Modulation is also called as Layered
modulation and it is used to increase the bit rate of
a deployed digital communication system. Here
multiple data streams (Base-layer and
Enhancement-layer) are multiplexed and
modulated into a single symbol stream. It is
predominantly used in Digital TV
broadcasting(Jiang and Wilford 2005). The same is
regained to prefer video and scalable media
transmission through WLANs(Wang et al., 2010;
Guo 2019). During transmission base layer and
enhancement layer are synchronously
superimposed. In hierarchical modulation users
with higher quality reception and well advanced
receivers can demodulate and decode more than
one data streams efficiently. The receivers with low
quality reception can able to decode only the data
set in the base layer (Wang et al., 2008). Figure 2
illustrates an example scenario of a layering
scheme with QPSK base layer and a 16-QAM
enhancement layer. The yellow point represents 2
bit wide base layer. The signal detector needs to
find in which quadrant the signal is located. This
will recover the value [01], the yellow point is in
the lower right corner. In better signal conditions,
the detector can more precisely relate the phase and
amplitude information to recover four more bits of
data ‘0111’. Thus, the base layer carries ‘01’, and
the enhancement layer carries ‘0111’.
In digital modulation techniques the
minimum distance between two constellation
points decides its immunity level to noise. The
fundamental idea behind hierarchical modulation
is that the minimum distance between MSB bits
(2d1) is longer than that between LSB (2d2). This
constraint is also used for unequal error protection.
The location of a state inside its quadrant is
considered as special information in HM. The other
special information employed in HM is quadrant
number (1, 2, 3 or 4) within which the state is to be
found. In this approach, two separate data streams
are made available for transmission. It provides
two independent multiplexing with high priority
enhancement layer and low priority base layer over
a single frequency channel. This scheme also
achieve higher data rate than the non-hierarchical
modulation for the same reference QAM technique
(Sun et al., 2015).
2.2 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
Multi-carrier modulation, in particular OFDM has
been successfully applied to a wide array of digital
communication applications over the recent years.
In OFDM symbols are transmitted with a set of
orthogonal sub-carriers. The capacity of
communication system can be enhanced by using
OFDM technique. OFDM is preferred in most of
the application due to its high transmission rate and
robustness against multi-path fading. Currently,
this modulation format has been actively explored
in the field of optical communications to take
advantages of its high spectral efficiency and
decreased equalizer complexity. The main
advantage of OFDM modulation is its ability to
deliver a continuously detectable signal along the
whole transmission link (Weinstein 2009).
N 1
v(t )   X k e j 2kt / T , 0  t  T (2)
k 0
N 1
v(t )   X k e j 2kt / T ,  T g  t  T (3)
k 0
The use of cyclic prefix (CP) is a key
element in enabling the OFDM signal to operate
reliably over the interfering channels. The basic
concept behind cyclic prefix in OFDM is that each
symbol is preceded by a duplicate copy of the end
part of that same symbol. Different OFDM cyclic
prefix lengths are available in various systems. For
example, within LTE Standard a normal length CP
and an extended length CP are available.
Mathematical representation of conventional
OFDM signal is given in equation (2). Here {Xk} is
number of data symbols, N is number of
subcarriers, T is OFDM symbol duration, the
1
subcarrier spacing of makes them orthogonal
T
over each symbol period. Tg is the guard interval
length, guard interval is used to mitigate ISI effects,
cyclic prefix is added at −Tg≤ t <0, Equation (3)
gives the mathematical representation of OFDM
signal with cyclic prefix.
In OFDM systems, one of the most popular
and frequently utilized techniques is the
transmission of one or several pilot symbols along
with regular symbols. A pilot symbol is a complete
OFDM symbol where the value of each sub-carrier
is predefined and known to transmitter and
receiver. It is repeated with a certain rate that
depends on how fast the channel condition is
changing. The received signal is correlated with the
locally available pilot symbol to detect the starting
symbol of OFDM frame. It can also be used for
channel estimation and also used for
synchronization (Weinstein 2009; Shibu and
Saminathan 2019). The Pilot symbols occupy
bandwidth and leads to constant capacity loss.
Reduction of pilot symbols will lead to better
spectral efficiency and thereby increasing the
capacity of the link (Wu et al., 2015). OFDM is
mainly applied in 4G cellular standards (LTE and
LTE Advanced), modern narrow and broadband
power line communications. OFDM does not have
to depend only on the usage of sinusoidal carriers.
There has been recent exploratory work in the use
of prolate spheroidal and wavelet transforms (Jain
and Myers 2003; Ghosh et al., 2010).
Though OFDM provides excellent data-
rate and multi-path operating capabilities, OFDM
is not flawless. It requires strict synchronization in
both time and frequency domains. Demodulation
of an OFDM signal with an offset in the frequency
can lead to a high bit error rate (BER). To optimize
the performance of an OFDM link, accurate
synchronization in symbol timing, carrier
frequency and sampling frequency is needed. The
other main issue is higher Peak-to-Average Power
Ratio (PAPR). PAPR is proportional to the number
of sub-carriers used. An OFDM system with large
number of sub-carriers will thus have a very large
PAPR. Large PAPR of a system makes the
implementation of Digital-to-Analog Converter
(DAC) and Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) as
extremely difficult. The design of RF amplifier also
becomes increasingly difficult as the PAPR
increases. In order to reduce PAPR, methods such
as clipping, windowing and linear peak
cancellation have to be employed along with
OFDM systems (Ramtej and Anuradha 2020; Nee
and Prasad 2005).
2.3 Filter-Bank Multi-Carrier
Even though OFDM is widely preferred for its
simple receiver design; Spectral leakage,
maintaining orthogonality and synchronization
were a major challenge in mobile receivers with
stringent power constraints. In order to overcome
all these undesirable effects without any
compromise on capacity, a new technique called
FBMC (Filter-Bank Multi-Carrier) was proposed
(Jiang et al., 2017). FBMC is one of the main
contenders in providing high capacity air-interface
for next generation wireless communications. As it
has improved spectral efficiency due to the
avoidance of CP. Basically, an FBMC is same as
OFDM format; but instead of using cyclic prefix it
uses specially designed filter banks. The side lobes
of sub-carriers are suppressed by the filter banks.
The filter banks produces strictly band limited
version of the subcarriers. The spectrum of a single
sub-carrier pulse is shaped using an appropriate
synthesis and analysis filter bank structure at
transmitter and receiver side respectively. In
OFDM system, the preferred pulse shape at the
transmitter and receiver are set to be rectangular.
The FBMC-based system can have the freedom to
use other pulse shapes like IOTA and PHYDYAS
(Caus et al., 2012).
Figure 3 describes the general transmitter
schematic of OFDM and FBMC. The OFDM block
contains IFFT block followed by cyclic prefix,
whereas in FBMC an array of digital filters
preceded by IFFT block is used. Polyphase filter
structures are usually preferred at the Transmitter
and Receiver side (Farhang 2011; Sahin et al.,
2014). By comparing FBMC with OFDM, FBMC
has better stability to frequency misalignments
among end-users and it can be more flexible in
cognitive radio networks for exploiting unused
frequencies (Fusco et al., 2008; Haykin 2005).
FBMC is usually coupled with either QAM or with
offset QAM (OQAM) modulation formats.
As we knew, growth in communication
technology makes the frequency spectrum as more
demanded and costliest resource. A comparison of
frequency spectrum occupancy of OQAM/FBMC
and OFDM is shown in Figure.4. It shows that
OQAM/FBMC is advantageous over OFDM.
There are many spectral side lobes in OFDM where
as OQAM-FBMC has sharp cut-off and lower
spectral side lobes which offers better symbol
detection even in presence of ISI. The
mathematical formulation of OQAM/FBMC is
given (Siohan et al., 2002) in equation 4 as,
N M
s (t )    p m , n (t ) x m , n ( 4)
n 0 m 0
Pn.k (t )   (t  nT ) e j (( 2 k 1) / 2T ) t (5)
where ϕ(t) is the impulse response of the prototype
filter.
Generally OQAM/FBMC modulated signal
is not considered to be a perfect alternative for
OFDM. In OFDM systems, the rectangular
symbols are non-overlapping to each other in the
time domain. However in OQAM/FBMC systems,
the transmitted symbols are overlapping with
adjacent symbols. FBMC still needs a perfect CSI
to outperform OFDM in terms of BER (Payaro et
al., 2010). Table 1 illustrates the comparison
between OFDM and OQAM/FBMC systems. It
shows OQAM/FBMC systems are more sensitive
to the time synchronization error and OFDM
systems are more sensitive to the frequency
synchronization error.
2.4 Faster Than Nyquist/Time Frequency Packed
Signalling
Now a days the serious concern in wireless
communication physical layer design is to maintain
high spectral efficiency. Sampling the analog
signal, quantising it and then performing digital
encoding followed by modulation were always
found to be a standard procedure at the transmitter
side. In receiver the samples are reconstructed by
extrapolating the information. Harry Nyquist
proposed that the sampling rate followed at the
transmitter should be at-least twice the bandwidth
of the signal for proper reconstruction at the
receiver side. The violation of the above rule leads
to aliasing of signal components. But at recent
times engineers have found a way to break the
barrier of Nyquist frequency, by clever way of
manipulating aliasing to encode and modulate the
signal (Dasalukunte et al., 2011). Let the
transmitted signal s(t) be represented as,
s(t )  E s  an (t  nT ) (6)
n For a long time, FTN was studied only as a
Here an describes the symbol magnitude of
value ±1, Es represents pulse energy, a single pulse
is indicated as ϕ(t) with unit energy, the data rate of
the transmitted signal is Rb bps. The signal s(t) is
modulated with appropriate carrier frequency. In
OFDM there are many symbols (s(t)), which are
modulated in parallel manner. That is each s(t) is
subcarrier modulated with its own carrier. The
most important requirement of a basic pulse is its
orthogonality. This orthogonality ensures proper
reconstruction of symbols at the receiver side using
optimal receiver. But in the FTN signalling
orthogonality between pulses(ϕ(t)) is not followed.
Many non-orthogonal shaped ϕ(t) such as
Universal Filtered Multi-Carrier (UFMC) and
FBMC could be employed. The symbol duration is
τT, where τ <1, and the transmitted signal is
represented in equation 7 as,
s(t )  E s  a n h(t  nT ) ( 7)
n adaptation is still being at its infancy. More over
The pulses are generated at a rate of 1/τ. If
a filter matched to ϕ(t) is used at the detector with
a sampling rate of nτT will contain both inter-
symbol interference (ISI) as well as desired signal
(Dasalukunte et al., 2014). There is always a trade-
off between pulse orthogonality and bit rate for the
same bandwidth and energy per bit. This novelty
of intentional interference among symbols can
transmit up to twice the bits as compared to
ordinary modulation for the same values of bit
energy, bandwidth and error rate. This method is
directly applicable to OFDM and QAM signalling.
But it also demands more complex signal
processing at the receiver side. (Bolcskei et al.,
2003; Fan et al., 2017).
The graphical representation of OFDM and
FTN symbols are shown in Figure 5. The ‘•’ marks
indicate OFDM symbols. The OFDM symbols are
represented in time versus frequency. Nyquist
criterion is followed to achieve zero ISI. The FTN
symbols are represented as ‘X’ marks. The symbol
T∆F∆ indicates the time frequency product. A value
of T∆F∆<1shows the presence of both intersymbol
and inter carrier interference with higher symbol
packing ability.
single carrier system, and over time it proves that
FTN can exploit the excess bandwidth of the single
carrier signal. The rate improvements of FTN in
single carrier systems motivated FTN into multi-
carrier systems (Rusek and Anderson 2009).
The resultant modulation formats in which
FTN is upgraded to multi-carrier technique are
called as Time-Frequency packed signalling (TFS).
The TFS systems have parameters similar to
FBMC. So direct implementation of TFS of
FBMC-OQAM and FBMC-QAM requires
minimal adaptation (Barbieri et al., 2009). Point of
view on data packing theory specify that the
packing produced by hexagonal lattices improves
spectral efficiency as compared to rectangular or
staggered lattices. Hexagonal lattices can also be
directly implemented in TFS/FTN Systems
(Strohmer and Heath, 2003; Dashti and Fakhraie,
2014). Though the concepts of FTN/TFS exist
around 40 years, realization and technology
the introduction of FTN signalling in multi-carrier
 systems directly or indirectly influences the
realization of other signal processing blocks, As a
result every block in the existing communication
system will require some alteration to support the
FTN/TFS system functionality.
2.5 Single Carrier Modulation
Single carrier modulation techniques have a long
history and have been widely used in both uplink
and downlink of 1G, 2G, 3G cellular systems and
the uplink of 4G wireless communication systems
(Hyung and Goodman, 2008). Compared with
multi-carrier modulations, single-carrier
modulations have some advantages:
i. The peak to average power ratio (PAPR) in
single-carrier modulation systems is very low,
which is very cooperative for the stability of
systems and the adoption of low-battery powered
devices in the design of wireless communication
system.
ii. Single-carrier modulation systems are less
sensitive to frequency shift and phase noise,
which makes it easier for the time and frequency
synchronizations in wireless communication
systems, particularly for point-to-point
communication system.
iii. However, single-carrier modulations are less
capable of dealing with multipath fading
channels, resulting in less spectral efficiency.
With the rapid advancement in technology,
wireless communication systems are becoming
more and more broadband. For example, current
TD-LTE occupies 20 MHz broadband and future
wireless communication systems may occupy 100
MHz or more. In single-carrier modulated systems,
higher bandwidth means smaller symbol interval,
leading to higher sensitivity to multipath fading
channels, which makes single-carrier modulation
systems more vulnerable to ISI. To overcome this,
complex multitap equalizers are preferred, which
leads to high computational and system complexity
(Hanzo et al., 2003; Junshe et al., 2019).
The Comparison between OFDM and
SCFDMA are described in Table 2. Single-carrier
Frequency Division Multiplexing (SC-FDM) has
drawn great attention as an alternative to OFDM,
especially in the LTE uplink communications. The
lower PAPR greatly benefits the mobile terminal in
terms of transmit power efficiency, low
manufacturing cost (Ohlmer et al., 2013). Despite
the PAPR benefits of SC-FDM as opposed to
OFDM, it is prone to suffer from the effects of
inter-symbol interference (ISI). Hence, SC-FDM
receivers turn out to be significantly more complex
than OFDM receivers, which may use single-tap
equalization in the frequency domain.
3 Error Control Codes
The physical layer of digital communications
includes mapping of digital input information into
a waveform for transmission over a channel. The
waveform transmitted over a communication
channel may get distorted due to noise present in
the channel. The main aim of the receiver is to
recover the original data from the noise corrupted
waveform. This noiseless data recovery process is
supported by an additional encoding mechanism
called Error Correcting Codes (ECC) used at the
transmitter.
Error Correcting Codes (ECC) are
mathematical functions which map a sequence of
K discrete values, into a sequence of N discrete
values. The mapping process will introduce
redundant bit (N-K) information to the original bit
sequence. ECC admit inverse functions capable to
recover the data sequence A, regardless of possible
transmission errors in the code sequence X,
provided that the number of erroneous symbols
does not exceed the error correction capability of
the code. The encoding of a data stream can be
performed in two different ways such as Block
coding and Stream coding.
In block coding technique, the input data
sequence are partitioned into a block of length K
and a coding function is applied separately to each
block to produce encoded block of length N. The
examples of block coding techniques are linear
block codes, cyclic codes, Reed-Solomon codes,
Hamming codes, turbo codes, Low Density Parity
Check (LDPC) codes etc. In case of stream coding
the data sequence is fed into a finite state machine,
which outputs one or more coded symbols for each
input data symbol. The examples of stream coding
include convolutional codes, soft-output Viterbi
algorithm (SOVA), forward backward (FB)
algorithm etc. The amount of redundancy added
and the error correction capability will control the
throughput value for the communication system
(Franceschini et al., 2009; Hasan et al., 2105).
3.1 LDPC Coded Modulation
Recently low density parity check encoding is
getting increased attention from academia and
industry. Even though the original invention of
LDPC codes was found from 1960s, the
advancements in processor computational ability
provides a new beginning in error control codes. In
memory less channels LDPC coded information
achieves near theoretical capacity performance
(Ten et al., 2004). An LDPC code is coming under
the category of a (N,K) linear block code in which
K number of message bits are used to produce
codeword of N bits. The interpretation low density
says the number of ones (density) in the parity-
check matrix H is very less (Low) compared to the
number of zeros in H. The size of the H matrix is
decided as usual what we follow in the LBC. The
column size will decide the size of code word and
the number of parity bits used in encoding is
decided by row size of the H Matrix. A notation
(wc,wr) is followed for the construction of regular
LDPC code. In that row weight (wr) describes the
number of ‘1’ bits in every row of H matrix and
column weight (wc) describes number of ‘1’ bits in
every column of H matrix.
LDPC codes can be classified into the
following two groups according to wr and wc.
i. Regular (Gallager codes) - (Number of 1s is
constant in each row and column).
ii. Irregular (Richardson codes) - (Varying
number of 1s in each row and column).
The construction of a regular (2,4) LDPC
code is shown in Figure 6. The parity check matrix
is constructed with predefined rows and columns.
The matrix is constructed with the help of graph
which deals with two types of nodes; variable
nodes represented as yellow circles and check
nodes represented as green squares. LDPC Coded
Modulation is an LDPC encoder concatenated with
a multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) channel
modulator. It shows a practical way of achieving
good performance in a wide variety of channels
with the currently available technology (Qian and
Mow, 2017; Priyanka and shukla, 2018). A BER
performance analysis of LDPC coded
communication system was done under fading
channel by Deveil. The simulation result shows an
LDPC encoded information performs better than
uuencoded information in terms of BER (Deveil
and Kabalci, 2016).
3.2 3D Turbo Codes
Future wireless generations have strict requirement
of very low Frame Error Rate (FER) down to 10−8.
Such low FER may claim real-time and more
demanding video applications such as TV
broadcasting, Video conferencing (Matsumine and
Ochiai, 2018). The minimum Hamming distance
dmin of an LDPC code may not be enough to offer
such FER at the required SNR. The increase of
code length will increase the dmin of that coding
technique. The longer dmin will reduce FER, at the
same time longer dmin will increase the
computational complexity. Other way to increase
dmin is to put appropriate internal permutations in
both encoder and decoder. But this will affect
multiplicity of the code and require lots of power
to compute. Alternative way to improve dmin is to
concatenate the component encoders in series
rather than in parallel.
Turbo is a message passing principle in
which simple component codes are concatenated.
Parallel concatenation was originally used in turbo
for its fast convergence. If serial concatenation is
used, dmin and the convergence threshold are
increased substantially (Berrou and Glavieux,
1996). In 3D Turbo codes (3D-TC) a fusion of both
parallel and serial concatenation will be done in the
original turbo coder. 3D-TC is simply derived from
the classical TC by adding a partial-rate-1 third
dimension. A rate-1 post-encoder is concatenated
at the output of the standard turbo encoder and
encoding only a fraction λ of the parity bits
stemming from each encoder.
This characteristic of the 3D-TC makes it
very versatile from the standpoint of block size and
coding rate. Furthermore, the max-log-MAP
component decoding algorithm is simple and
straightforward that does not require any CSI.
Finally, the internal permutations of the 3D-TC are
based on very simple models allowing large
parallel decoding. 3D turbo code is memoryless, so
the code can still be optimized to handle
accumulate coding using a memory block (Anwar
and Matsumoto, 2012).Turbo codes are primarily
used today in MU-MIMO and Hybrid Automatic
ReQuest (HARQ) systems (Parvathy and Ganesan,
2018; Sugiura et al., 2012).
3.3 Polar Codes
Polar codes are one of the recently discovered
capacity achieving channel codes. It is designed
mathematically and its performance is well proven
(Arikan 2009). The mutual information between
two discrete random variables is exploited in polar
codes. Here the code is designed such that the
channel outputs depend on the other inputs as well.
Working principle of Polar codes is as follows
• Consider the discrete memory-less channel.
• Let N be the length of information sequence.
• Consider the transmission of two information
bits u1 and u2.
The simplest polar encoder structure for N= 2, i.e.,
for u[u1 u2 ] is depicted in Figure7. From figure,
𝑥1 = 𝑢1 ⨁ 𝑢2 and 𝑥2 = 𝑢2 (8)
𝑥̅ = 𝑢̅ 𝐺 (9)
1 0
where G    Similarly one can extend N of
1 1 .
the polar codes and arrive at more sophisticated
solutions. In the polar encoder structure shown in
figure 7 there are two W blocks. Which is a unique
phenomenon in polar codes called channel
splitting i.e., they make the channel into a binary
symmetric channel. Whenever decoding is needed
they combine those split channels into single and
then decode. It is an innovative way to approach
Shannon Capacity limit (Gazi 2013).
The purpose of special polar coded generator
matrix is used to make sure that the outputs depend
on other inputs. A clever way of decoding at the
receiver is achieved either by employing recursive
successive cancellation or by using likelihood
functions (Tal and Vardy, 2015). Table 3 shows the
performance comparison between polar, 3D turbo
and LDPC codes (Tahir et al., 2017). Recent
improvements in polar codes include finding
simple butterfly like structures in decoding and
then exploiting random properties of a channel to
pack higher capacity than conventional error
control codes (Balogun 2017).
4 Spatial Modulation
It is well known fact that the existing MIMO
technique will offer very high capacity & high
spectral efficiency with the use of a large number
of antennas. MIMO-OFDM employed in current
LTE standard also fails for meeting 5G
requirements. Therefore there is a need to focus a
modulation technique for the data rate
requirements of future wireless communication.
Recently spatial modulation (SM) is getting more
interest as next generation modulation concept
(Wen et al, 2017).
The intention of SM is to scale down
deployment cost and energy requirement with the
compromise on decreased overall capacity
(Sugiura et al, 2012). In SM the index of the active
antenna used at the transmitter/receiver will
convey extra information. Therefore at any time
instant the information bits to be transmitted are
divided into two parts. The first part is mapped to
a symbol chosen from the signalling constellation
and the second part determines the index of the
selected antenna from the available antennas
(Renzo et al, 2011). Space Shift Keying and
Transmit Antenna Selection are the two precursors
of SM (Jeganathan et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2003).
A generalized physical layer schematic of
spatial modulation is provided in Figure 8. The
working principle of SM is based on the following
facts:
• The wireless environment naturally
modulates the transmitted signal as the location
specific attributes for the link between Tx antenna
to Rx antenna. It will be unique in a high scattering
environment.
• The receiver employs apriori channel
knowledge to detect both transmitted signal and the
antenna index.
 Accordingly, SM differs from space division
multiple access (SDMA) as well. In SDMA the
differences in the channel impulse responses are
exploited for multiple-access and are not used for
data modulation (Mietzner et al., 2009). SM is a
hybrid MIMO modulation technique as it
instinctively combines signal and spatial
information from the tri-dimensional constellation.
The aggregate result of transmit-antenna position
and modulated signals is jointly used. Figure 9
illustrates the 3-D spatial constellation diagram of
SM. Antenna Index is considered along Z axis.
Consider an example as 4 bit data ‘0010’. The first
2bits ‘00’ select the antenna and the remaining
2bits ‘10’ are selected from the corresponding
QPSK signal constellation. The advantages of
single active antenna SM over conventional MIMO
Systems are listed in Table 4.
4.1 Enhanced Spatial Modulation & Quadrature
Spatial Modulation
The conventional SM technique uses only the
real part of the spatial modulation constellation.
The Quadrature method extends this to in-phase
and quadrature phase dimensions. In deploying
quadrature spatial modulation (QSM) pre-
processing is essential at the transmitter side. QSM
increases the total throughput of conventional SM
systems by using an extra spatial dimension inside
modulation. It is shown that substantial
performance enhancements can be achieved at the
expense of synchronizing the transmit antennas
(Mesleh et al., 2015). A new technique called
interleaving division multiplexing is considered as
an improved version for multiple antenna system.
The antenna index sets are applied along with
antenna number to a spreader for information
transmission (Dyasti et al., 2018).
Enhanced spatial modulation (ESM) method
uses one or two active antennas and multiple signal
constellations information. The encoded data will
have the information related to active antennas and
its corresponding primary or secondary
constellation. The key feature of Enhanced SM is
that it uses a primary signal constellation during the
single active antenna periods and some other
secondary constellations during the periods with
two active transmit antennas. The secondary signal
constellations are derived from the primary
constellation by means of geometric interpolation
in the signal space. The receiver complexity
analysis of ML detection revealed that while ESM
achieves a substantial performance gain (3dB) over
conventional SM, it also significantly reduces the
complexity of the optimum decoder (Cheng et al.,
2015).
4.2 Generalized Spatial Modulation
The Generalized SM (GSM) scheme improves
the spectral efficiency of SM by increasing the
number of active transmit antennas and arbitrary
number of transmit antennas are activated
simultaneously (Renzo et al., 2014). It follows the
notation GSM(M,P), where M is the number of
transmit antennas and P is the number of activated
antennas, a case where M = P i.e., GSM(M,M) is
equivalent to the conventional BLAST scheme
with M number of independent symbols are
embedded in a code word. In designing GSM, a
complete CSI at transmitter side is to be available.
It is usually realized by a precoding between a set
of transmitter antenna schemes and a digital
modulation technique
let us consider an example of four transmit
antennas and 2 antennas is always active i.e., M =
4, P = 2 and a BPSK scheme is employed, then for
input bits ‘001’, the antennas 1 and 2 are active and
only symbol of ‘0’(−1) is transmitted. A newly
introduced concept called ‘Massive MIMO but few
Active’ is an extension to GSM. It works by
leveraging the antenna modulation principle to a
larger extent. In that the antenna activation pattern
is based on a large combination dispersion matrix
approach. An optimization is followed in both
space time block duration as well as the number of
dispersion matrices in addition to the number of
transmit and receive antennas (Sugiura et al.,
2010).
In GSM the number of index combinations is
usually not a power of two. To solve this problem,
many effective schemes have been designed such
as fractional bit encoding, bit padding and
constellation order varying etc.
4.3 Differential Spatial Modulation
Prerequisite of channel state information in either
transmitter or receiver side is a minor drawback in
spatial modulation. i.e., only coherent reception
was conceivable in SM. So a technique called
differential spatial modulation (DSM) was
introduced to bypass the need for CSI (Bian, 2013).
In that information bits are differentiated into two
portions; the first portion choose a space-time
matrix representing the antenna activation order
and the remaining portion uses the modulated
symbols. The increase in number of transmit
antennas or modulation order will lead to more
complexity burden during ML detection at the
receiver side. A simple solution is to introduce
memory to receiver and employ Viterbi like
algorithm to achieve low complexity (Wen et al.,
2015).
To achieve full diversity in DSM, a cyclic
signal constellation technique was adapted
(Rajashekar et al., 2017). The antenna activation
orders are set to follow the ascending order, which
lead to huge bit difference between two similar
orders. So to avoid that, a gray coded antenna
activation pattern was proposed to further improve
the diversity gain and coding gain (Li et al., 2016).
Most recent work in DSM is precoded-DSM. The
transmitter precoding helps to map the information
bits at the receiver side. When the required
performance is achieved with limited number of
antennas, the receiver can sometimes even switch
off a few receiver antennas (Zhang et al., 2015).
4.4 MIMO-OFDM- Index Modulation
As SM became widespread and popular,
investigations began to spread out the principle of
SM to OFDM subcarriers. Firstly a new standard
called subcarrier index modulation OFDM (SIM-
OFDM) was introduced. Here the basic principle is
that the half of the OFDM subcarriers transmits
modulated symbols and the remaining active
subcarriers are dedicated to signalling (Abu and
Hass, 2009). The next big breakthrough in SIM-
OFDM is the extension to MIMO-OFDM-IM, it
can be an effective 5G modulation technique as it
provides excellent spectral efficiency and better
error performance than V-BLAST scheme.
MIMO-OFDM-Index Modulation (IM)
selects an array of active and inactive subcarriers
to give additional information along with
transmitted signal and it can also be easily
extended towards Massive MIMO and MU-MIMO
support (Basar, 2015). Still MIMO-OFDM-IM has
its own downsides, considering N subcarriers and
selecting L inactive subcarriers is a tedious process
especially when N is very large. So precoding is
needed at the transmitter to avoid ICI (Wen et al.,
2015). Introduction of FTN instead of OFDM-IM
was proposed in Ultra HDTV transmission due to
its extreme high capacity for a given bandwidth.
The conventional SISO FTN is very poor in
decoding at the receiver side. But the use of both
MIMO and Index Modulation drastically improves
the reception and decoding of FTN signal at the
receiver side (Jo et al., 2016). MIMO-OFDM-IM
techniques can offer low-complexity as well as
spectrum and energy efficient solutions towards
next generation wireless link capacity
requirements.
5. Conclusion
This paper reviews the recent wireless
communication techniques and methods from the
perspective of providing high throughput for
applications demanding low energy requirements.
A major focus was given to the methods originated
from modulation techniques, error control coding
and spatial modulation techniques. The upcoming
5G wireless standard demands a spectral efficiency
of at least 23 bits/seconds/Hz. The future industrial
technologies such as IoT and artificial intelligence
may have a key requirements on data rate and
spectral efficiency. The modulation techniques like
OFDM, OQAM-FBMC are playing a major role in
achieving such higher spectral efficiency
requirements. The challenges put forth for error
control coding technique is to get a better Frame
Error Rate closer to 10−8 with minimal complexity.
At present the Turbo codes are employed in the
existing 4G LTE-A standard. But it could not meet
the stringent FER requirements of 5G systems. The
performance of polar codes exhibits a promising
alternative to 3D turbo codes and a viable
contender for 5G ECC technique. The methods
discussed under spatial modulation techniques will
give a new pathway to achieve “Green yet high
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Wireless
Channel Receiver
Modulator
Transmitter
 Figure 2 Hierarchical Modulation Layers and Constellation Diagram

Figure 3 (a) OFDM Transmitter Schematic (b) FBMC Transmitter Schematic

Figure 4 Spectrum comparison between OFDM and OQAM-FBMC

Figure 5 FTN and OFDM symbols on a discrete time–frequency plot

Figure 6 Construction diagram of a regular (2,4) LDPC code

Figure 7 Structure of N=2 polar encoder

 Figure 8 Physical Layer schematic of spatial Modulation

Figure 9 3-Dimensional Constellation of Spatial Modulation

Table 1 Performance Comparison between OFDM and FBMC Modulation

Property OFDM FBMC

Cyclic CP required Mostly CP is not needed
Prefix Hence spectrum efficient
MIMO Highly Limited flexibility
Support Flexible
Doppler Highly Less sensitive to
Effect sensitive to carrier frequency offset.
carrier Hence performs better
frequency under mobility.
offset
Complexity Low Relatively high
computational computational
complexity complexity

Table 2 Comparison between OFDM and SCFDMA

OFDM SC-FDMA
Multi-carrier transmission Single carrier transmission
Parallel transmission of Sequential transmission of
data data
with low individual with high individual
symbol rate symbol rate
High PAPR Low PAPR
Highly sensitive to Less sensitive to carrier
frequency offset frequency offset
Less sensitive to spectral
Sensitive to spectral null
null
Bit/power loading Bit/power loading not
possible possible
Table 3 Performance between polar, 3D turbo and LDPC codes
Parameter Polar Code 3D Turbo LDPC
Complexity Nlog2N (medium) mN(low) N2 (high)
Encoder Design recursive encoder convolutional encoder matrix multiplication
Decoder Iterations fixed iterations
fixed iterations. Bursty iterations.
But can be modified Decoder stops when
Bit rate of decoder is
using early terminate code word is found.
always constant
circuit
Decoder Approximation offset min-sum scaled min-sum
max-log approximation
approximation approximation
BER Performance relatively poor
Excellent nearly equal to polar
performance

Table 4 Advantages of single active antenna SM over conventional MIMO Systems

Parameters Conventional MIMO Spatial Modulation

Number of active Antennas
Inter-Carrier Interference
Synchronization
RF Chains
Power requirement
Receiver Complexity
Multiple active antennas
Severe Inter-Carrier
Interference
Inter-antenna
synchronization required for
operation
Require multiple-RF Chains
Very high due to multiple RF
chains
Very High
Only one active antenna
No Inter-Carrier Interference
No synchronization required
as only 1 antenna is active
Requires only one RF chain
Lower power required
Simple Receiver is sufficient