Anderson-98101 book November 4, 2009 21:42

26 PA R T 1 Fundamental Principles

obtain the following integral forms for the force and moment coefficients:
 c  c  
1 dyu dyl
cn = (C p,l − C p,u ) d x + c f,u + c f,l dx (1.15)
c 0 0 dx dx
 c    c 
1 dyu dyl
ca = C p,u − C p,l dx + (c f,u + c f,l ) d x (1.16)
c 0 dx dx 0
 c  c 
1 dyu dyl
cm LE = 2 (C p,u − C p,l )x d x − c f,u + c f,l x dx
c 0 0 dx dx
 c   c   (1.17)
dyu dyl
+ C p,u + c f,u yu d x + −C p,l + c f,l yl d x
0 dx 0 dx
The simple algebraic steps are left as an exercise for the reader. When evaluating
these integrals, keep in mind that yu is directed above the x axis, and hence is
positive, whereas yl is directed below the x axis, and hence is negative. Also,
dy/d x on both the upper and lower surfaces follow the usual rule from calculus
(i.e., positive for those portions of the body with a positive slope and negative for
those portions with a negative slope).
The lift and drag coefficients can be obtained from Equations (1.1) and (1.2)
cast in coefficient form:

cl = cn cos α − ca sin α (1.18)

cd = cn sin α + ca cos α (1.19)

Integral forms for cl and cd are obtained by substituting Equations (1.15) and
(1.16) into (1.18) and (1.19).
It is important to note from Equations (1.15) through (1.19) that the aerody-
namic force and moment coefficients can be obtained by integrating the pressure
and skin friction coefficients over the body. This is a common procedure in both
theoretical and experimental aerodynamics. In addition, although our derivations
have used a two-dimensional body, an analogous development can be presented
for three-dimensional bodies—the geometry and equations only get more com-
plex and involved—the principle is the same.

E X A MPL E 1.1
Consider the supersonic flow over a 5◦ half-angle wedge at zero angle of attack, as sketched
in Figure 1.23a. The freestream Mach number ahead of the wedge is 2.0, and the freestream
pressure and density are 1.01×105 N/m2 and 1.23 kg/m3 , respectively (this corresponds to
standard sea level conditions). The pressures on the upper and lower surfaces of the wedge
are constant with distance s and equal to each other, namely, pu = pl = 1.31 × 105 N/m2 ,
as shown in Figure 1.23b. The pressure exerted on the base of the wedge is equal to p∞ .
As seen in Figure 1.23c, the shear stress varies over both the upper and lower surfaces as
τw = 431s −0.2 . The chord length, c, of the wedge is 2 m. Calculate the drag coefficient
for the wedge.