PRINCIPLES OF NAVIGATION (QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS)

1. Define: Common log, characteristics, mantissa, and anti log

Answer: COMMON LOG or LOGARITHM is the exponent of the power to which a fix number called
base must be raised to produce a certain other number. A logarithm is composed of two
parts. That part to the left of the decimal point is called CHARCTERISTIC. That part to the
right of the decimal point is called the MANTISSA. A number corresponding to a given
logarithm is called ANTILOG.

39.465 x 17881 x 10948 0.098 x 19.13 x 4.044

2. Solve by log: ( 1 ) (2)
7 0.882

Solution: (1) Log 39.465 1.59621 (2) Log 0.098 8.99123

Log 17887 4.25254 Log 19.13 1.28172
Log 10948 4.03933 Log 4.044 = 0.60638
---------- x4 = 2.42553
9.88808 ----------
Log 7 - 0.84510 12.69848
---------- Log 0.882 - 9.94547
Answer: 0.11040 Log 9.04298 ----------
Ans.: 566.25 Log 2.75301
1
3. Prove: ( 1 ) --------- = Csc A; (2) Draw a figure to illustrate your answer.
Sin A

Answers: Reciprocal relationship a ) A quantity when multiplied by its reciprocal is equal to unity.

2 5 X Y XY
Examples: ---- X ---- = ---- X ---- = ---- = 1
5 2 Y X XY

b) The product of a quantity when multiplied by a fraction is equal to that quantity

divided by the reciprocal of the fraction. Example:
2 5
i) 10 X ---- = 10 ÷ ---- = 4
5 2
X Y 10X
ii) 10 X ---- = 10 ÷ ---- = -----
Y X Y

a c
In the Figure below: Sin A = ----- and Csc A = -----
B c a
a c
But ----- X ----- = 1
c a

Therefore Sin A x Csc A = 1

c a
Sin A x Csc A 1
------------------ = -------
Sin A Sin A
A
90˚ C 1
b So: Csc A = -------
Sin A

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 TRIGONOMETRY: OBLIQUE, ANGLED PLANE TRIANGLE

Case 1: Given three sides, to find the angle. Use HAVERSINE FORMULA.

Example: A lighthouse bears N 12˚ W 5 miles away from a vessel which then steams 8 miles to
westward. the lighthouse is then 7.2 miles distant. Find the course steered by the ship and
the bearing of the lighthouse.

1. Let C represent the lighthouse. C

2. Lay CA in reciprocal being S 12˚ E. B a=7.2
3. With A as center and 8 miles radius
Draw an arc westward.
4. With C as center and radius 7.2 miles b=5.0
Draw an arc to cut the first arc at B. c=8.0
5. Join AB and BC.
A

Solution: a 7.2 (S-a) = 2.9 hav A = (S-b) (S-c)

b 5.0 (S-b) = 5.1 bxc
c 8.0 (S-c) = 2.1 Nat hav A = 5.1 x 2.1 = 10.71
5x8 40
2√20.2 = 0.26775
S = 10.1

From the Haversine Table (Table 34): A = 62˚19.5’ (Apply to left of AC)
A to C = N 12˚00.0’W
A to B = N 74˚19.5’W - The ship’s course
Or : Course is 285˚40.5’

Hav C = (S-a) (S-b)

axb
Nat hav C = 2.9 x 5.1 = 14.79 = 0.41083
7.2 x 5 36
C = 79˚43.5’ (Apply to the right N 12˚ W)
N 12˚00.0’W (A to C)
N 67˚43.5’E – The bearing of the lighthouse

Example for Exercise:

1. In triangle ABC, side a = 49 miles, side b = 38 miles, side c = 35 miles. Required to find angles A, B
and C.

Answers: A = 84˚13’ B = 50˚30’ C = 45˚17’

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 THE SINE FORMULA

Case II: The Sine Formula is used when two angles and two sides opposite each other, given any three to
find the fourth. In any plane triangle the sides are always proportional to the sines of their
opposite angles.

Formula: a = b = c
Sin A Sin B Sin C

Problem: Vessel A steering eastward, sights vessel B dead ahead steering a course 315˚. After 15 minutes
B bears 012˚. The speed of each vessel is 13.5 knots. Find the original distance at the second
bearing between the two vessels.

x = 3.375 ; x = 3.375
B1 Sin B Sin A Sin 57˚ Sin 78˚

57˚ X = 3.375 Sin 57˚ Csc 78˚

y 3.375 Log 3.375 0.52827

Log Sin 57˚ 9.92359
Log Csc 87˚ 0.00960
78˚ 45˚ x Log 0.46146
x = 2.8937 miles
A A1 B AB = x- AA1 ; x 2.8937
AA1 3.375
AB 6.2687 miles

y = 3.375
Sin 45˚ Sin 78˚

y = 3.375 Sin 45˚ Csc 78˚

Log 3.375 0.52827

Log Sin 45˚ 9.84949
Log Csc 78˚ 0.00960
------------
y Log 0.38736
y = 2.4398 miles

Example for Exercise: Vessels A and B on the same Latitude. Distance between them is 1735 feet.
Point X bears N64˚28’E from A, 316˚36’ from B. Find the distance of each vessel
from X.

Answers: Side a = 785.74 feet Side b = 1,324.5 feet.

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 TANGENT FORMULA

Case III: The Tangent Formula is applied when two sides and their included angle are given and it is
required to find one or both of the remaining angles.

Example: A ship at anchor. A light bore 309˚ with a distance of 3.6 miles at the same time a point
bore 008˚ distance 5.2 miles. Find the bearing and distance of the point from the light
house.

Solution: 360˚ C = 51˚ + 8˚ = 59˚

- 309˚ B
----------- 180˚
51˚ - 59˚
---------
A + B = 121˚ c
½ (A + B) = 60˚30’

A 78˚18’56”
Tan ½ (A-B) a–b a 5.2
---------------- = -------
Tan ½ (A-B) a+b

Tan ½ (A-B) 5.2 – 3.6 b 3.6

---------------- = ------- 59˚
Tan 60˚30’ 5.2 + 3.6 8˚
51˚
1.6 Tan 60˚30’
Tan ½ (A-B) = --------------------- C
8.8

Log 1.6 0.20412 A = c

Log T60˚30’ 0.24736 51˚
------------ --------------
0.45148 129˚18’56”
Log 8.8 - 0.94448 - 180˚
------------ --------------
Log T ½(A-B)9.50700 N 50˚41’04” E bearing of B from A

½(A-B) = 17˚48’56” Solving for c: c 5.2

½(A-B) = 60˚30’00” --------- = --------------------
------------- Sin 59˚ Sin 78˚18’56”
A = 78˚18’56” c = 5.2 Sin 59˚ Csc 78˚18’56”
Log 5.2 0.71600
Log Sin 59˚ 9.93307
Log Csc 78˚18’56” 0.00900
-------------
Log c 0.65807
c = 4.5527 miles

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 CIRCULAR MEASURE

1. What is a radian? Derive its value.

RADIAN is the angle subtended by an arc if circle equal in length to the radius of a circle. The
length of the circumference of any circle is a
constant number times the length of the
diameter of this same circle. This constant
number is Pi = 3.14159.

I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e
Thus if the radius is fitted around the
circumference it will be found that 6.28318 ( 2 x
3.14159 ) radii will be equal the length of the
circumference.

Since the angle subtended at the center of the circle by

the circumference is 360˚ it will be clear that the
angle subtended by an arc whose length is equal
to the radius is 360˚ and equals 57˚17’45” or
57.3˚. This unit of a circle is a radian. 6.28318

2. Example: A ship sails a circular course round a point and maintains constant distance of 4 miles
from it until the point alters its bearing 49˚. Required the distance sailed.

In the figure, O represents the point CA 4 miles, ACC =

49˚, AOB = one radian = 57.3˚. Required
to find the length arc AC.

An arc of 180˚ = ñr
An arc of 49˚ = ñr x 49˚
-----
180˚
= 22 4 49
----- x ----- x ------
7 1 180

Sailed = 3.42 miles

Arc AC AOC AB = 4 miles
Or: ----------- = ----------
Arc AB AOB AOC = 49˚
AOB = 57.3˚

Therefore: AC = 4 x 49 = 3.42 miles

---------
57.3

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3. The bearing of a lighthouse at 0800 was 090˚ distance 2.5 miles and bearing of the same
lighthouse is 155˚ at 0818. Find the ship’s speed.
 180˚
- 155˚ A radian = 57.3˚
-------
S 25˚ E

Radian Angular difference between bearings

--------- = ---------------------------------------------------
Radius Distance between bearings

Distance
57.3˚ 65˚ 0818 Speed = -------------
-------- = ------------- - 0800 Time
2.5 Dist run -------- 2.83
18 mins Speed = ----------
0.3
(2.5) x (65˚) Speed = 9.43
Dist run = ----------------
57.3˚

Dist run = 2.83 miles

Exercises:

1. A ship rounding a point maintains a constant distance of 3 miles from it whilst bearing of the point
alters 65˚, what distance in miles did she sail?

Ans.: 3.4 miles

2. Two places differ in latitude 42˚. How far apart are they assuming the earth’s radius to be 4,000
miles?

Ans.: 2,932 miles

3. A ship on steaming trials is turning in a circle on port helm. She takes 6½ minutes steering at 5
knots to complete a circle. Find (a) distance travelled by ship (b) diameter of her turning circle.

Note: 1 nautical mile = 6080 ft.

Ans.: (a) 3,293 feet (b) 1048 feet

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4. Q. What is the magnetic and true bearing of an object if its compass bearing is 033˚? Variation of
locality is 3˚ W, and deviation is 5˚W. Draw a sketch to show your solution.
 A. C/b D M/b V T/b
----- ---- ------ ---- -----
033˚ 5˚W 028˚ 3˚W 025˚

5. Q. Describe the Solar System. Name the planets according to their distances from the sun.

A. The SOLAR SYSTEM refers to the Sun and satellites. Our solar system is a member of the Milky
Way Galaxy. The core of the solar system is the sun. The sun is just like any star you see in
heavens and it is medium sized and of medium brightness. Around the sun are nine major planets,
many thousands of minor planets called ASTEROIDS, countless comets, meteors and clouds of
cosmic dusts. The nine major planets revolve around the sun in their respective orbits.

The planets named in order of their distances from the sun are: -MERCURY, VENUS, EARTH,
MARS, JUPITER, SATURN, URANUS, NEPTUNE, and PLUTO

6. Q. What is meant by eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit?

A. This means the flattening of the earth’s orbit about 0.017.

7. Definitions:

In each planet’s orbit, the point nearest the sun is called PERIHELION and the point farthest from
the sun is called APHELION.

A line joining perihelion and aphelion is called LINE OF APSIDES.

In the orbit of the Moon, the point nearest the Earth is called PERIGEE. The point farthest from
the Earth is called APOGEE.

A straight line a star and a planet is called RADIUS VECTOR.

The OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC is the inclination of the ecliptic (the sun’s apparent path) to the
plane of the equinoctial.

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COORDINATES OF THE HORIZON SYSTEM

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SOLUTION OF RIGHT ANGLED SPHERICAL TRIANGLES

A RIGHT ANGLED SPHERICAL TRIANGLE is one which has one of its angles is equal to 90˚.

Napier’s Rules For Circular Parts:

1. Let the triangle consist of five parts, viz., the three sides and two angles, the 90˚ may be omitted.

2. The compliments of the hypotenuse and the two angles are used.

3. Adjacent part means the one next. Opposite part means the one past the adjacent.

4. By selecting any of the three parts as a middle part the other two must form either two adjacent
parts or two opposite parts when one of the following formulae will apply:

(product of tangents of adjacent

Sine of Middle part = parts)
(product of cosines of opposite
parts)

Example: Find the meridian angle (t) and altitude (H) when the Star was on the Prime Vertical
west of the observer in Latitude 38˚55’38”N declination 27˚16’48”N.

Note: When the body in the Prime vertical, Z = 90˚

90˚
-L 38˚55’38”N Sin co P = Tan co PX Tan PZ
--------------- Cos P = Cot PX Tan PZ
PZ 51˚04’22”
PX 62˚43’12” Log cot 9.71240
90˚ PZ 51˚04’22” Log tan 0.09276
-d 27˚16’48”N ---------------
--------------- P 50˚19’12” Log cos 9.80516
PX 62˚43’12”
t (West) = 3h 21m 16.8s

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Sin Co-PX = Cos PZ Cos ZX PX 62˚43’12” Log Cos 9.6619

PZ 51˚04’22” Log Sec 0.20181
Cos PX = Cos PZ Cos ZX -----------
ZX Log Cos 9.86300
Cos PX = Cos PZ Cos ZX ZX 43˚09’32.4”
----------- ------------------ 90˚
Cos PZ Cos PZ ------------
Cos ZX = Cos PX Sec PZ Altitude H 46˚50’27.6”

Example: Required the Azimuth (Z) and Altitude (H) of the Sun at L.A.T. 1800 hrs in Latitude
18˚28’30”N when declination is 14˚12’36”N.

Note: When Local Apparent Time (L.A.T.) given is 0600 or 1800 hrs P = 90˚

90˚ 90˚
-L 18˚28’30”N -d 14˚12’36”N
-------------- ---------------
PZ 71˚31’30” PX

Sin PZ = Tan PX Tan Co-Z

Sin PZ = Tan PX Cot Z
Cot Z = Sin PX Cot PX

PZ 71˚31’30” Log Sin 9.97702

PX 75˚47’24” Log Cot 9.40351
----------
Z Log Cot 9.38053

Z N76˚29’41”W
Or: Zn 283˚30’19”

Sin Co ZX = Cos PX Cos PZ

PX 75˚47’24” Log Cos 9.39001
PZ 71˚31’30” Log Cos 9.50091
----------
Log Cos 8.89092

ZX 85˚32.3’
90˚
----------
Altitude H 4˚27.7’

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