MODULE 2
Lesson 1 - Sentence Unity and Coherence
Sentence Unity
-A sentence has unity if it expresses only one
main idea.
How to Achieve Sentence Unity
     Consistent Use of Tenses
  *A verb in an adverbial clause generally agrees
with the tense of the verb in the main clause.
Example: We finished our work before
we watched the game.       Consistent Use of Language
 
  *The verb in the adjective clause doesn’t need
to agree in the tense with the verb in the main
clause when the two actions are not necessarily
related in time of occurrence.
Example: Ms. Darcy, who was my teacher in
elementary, is now in Antarctica.
 
*The verb takes the present tense of the verb if
the idea being expressed is a universal truth or
a relatively permanent condition.  
Example: The sun rises in the east.
 
*Use the tense form of the word that tells the
time of action one wishes to express.
Example: He was in Manila last week, but now
he is in Baguio.
 
     Consistent Use of Number
   *Avoid unnecessary shifting from first person
to third person or vice versa
Example: If the students pass their project on
time, they will obtain a good mark.
 
     Consistent Use of Persons of Pronouns
*Shifting persons of pronouns will destroy unity.
The pronouns must agree with their
antecedents.
Example: The man was read his rights.
She is inviting us to attend her celebration.
 
     Consistent Use of Subject
  *Do not shift subject in a sentence.
Example: Students stay up late at night but
the projects  are not usually accomplished.
  (Wrong because of shift of subject from
student to project)
 
     Consistent Use of Voice
*Voice is the aspect of a verb that tells whether
the subject performs or receives the action.
Example: 
The department chair held a meeting and
discussed some important matters for the
upcoming seminar. (Active)
An inspirational message is given. (Passive)
 
*Use the same language throughout the
sentence. Avoid the use of foreign terms and
phrases which have not been incorporated into
the language. As much as possible, never resort
to language mixing.
  *Also, be consistent with the use of register
(formal, informal, slang).
Example: Aren’t we going home yet? I
am gutom na.
   (wrong because of language mixing)
             
 Sentence Coherence
-It means putting ideas in logical order showing
their relationship with one another. The
sentence elements should be in proper word
order.
 Coherence is achieved when sentences and
ideas are connected and flow together
smoothly. An essay without coherence can
inhibit a reader’s ability to understand the ideas
and main points of the essay. Coherence allows
the reader to move easily throughout the essay
from one idea to the next, from one sentence to
the next, and from one paragraph to the next.
 How to Achieve Coherence
 -Use Repetition to Link Ideas, Sentences, and
Paragraphs
*Repeating key words or phrases helps connect
and focus idea(s) throughout the essay.
Repetition also helps the reader remain focused
and headed in the right direction. 
Example: Most students are intimidated by the
works of William Shakespeare. They believe.
Shakespeare’s sonnets and plays are far too
complicated to read and understand.
 
-Use Transitional Expressions to Link Ideas,
Sentences, and Paragraphs
 *Transitional expressions, such
as however,  because, therefore, and  in
addition, are used to establish relationships
between ideas, sentences, and paragraphs.
They serve as signals to let the reader know the
previous idea, sentence, or paragraph is
connected to what follows.
 Example: Many students believe they cannot
write a good essay because they are not
writers. However, as they practice writing and
work on developing their writing skills, most
students are able to gain the needed confidence
to start thinking of themselves writers.
 
LIST OF TRANSITIONAL DEVICES AND THEIR
USE
To Add:    and, again, and then, besides, equally
important, finally, further, furthermore, nor,
too, next,       lastly, what's more, moreover, in
addition, first (second, etc.)
 
To Compare:  whereas, but, yet, on the other
hand, however, nevertheless, on the contrary,
by         comparison, where, compared to, up
against, balanced against, vis a vis, but,
although,   conversely, meanwhile, after all, in
contrast, although this may be true
 
To Prove: because, for, since, for the same
reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore,
moreover, besides,  indeed, in fact, in addition,
in any case, that is
 
To Show Exception: yet, still, however,
nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course,
once in a while,       sometimes
To Show Time: immediately, thereafter, soon,
after a few hours, finally, then, later,
previously,    formerly, first (second, etc.), next,
and then
 
To Repeat: in brief, as I have said, as I have
noted, as has been noted
 
To Emphasize: definitely, extremely, obviously,
in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely,
positively, naturally, surprisingly, always,
forever, perennially, eternally, never,
emphatically, unquestionably, without a doubt,
certainly, undeniably, without reservation
 
To Show Consequence: first, second, third, and
so forth. A, B, C, and so forth, next, then,
following this, at this time, now, at this point,
after, afterward, subsequently, finally,
consequently, previously, before this,
simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore,
hence, next, and then, soon
 
To Give an Example:      for example, for
instance, in this case, in another case, on this
occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to
demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to
illustrate
 
To Summarize or Conclude:   in brief, on the
whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion,
as I have shown, as I have said, hence,
therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result,
consequently
 
     Use Pronouns to Link Sentences
*Pronouns are used to link or connect
sentences by referring to preceding nouns and
pronouns. Pronouns can also help create
paragraphs that are easy to read by eliminating
wordiness and unnecessary repetition.
 Example: Mr. Thompson agreed to meet with
members of the worker’s union
before he signed the contract. He was
interested in hearing their concerns about the
new insurance plan.
     Use Synonyms to Link Ideas and Create
Variety
*Synonyms are words that have the same or
nearly the same meaning as another word. They
provide alternative word choices that can add
variety to an essay and can help eliminate
unnecessary repetition.
Example: Teenagers face an enormous amount
of peer pressure from friends and schoolmates.
As a result, many young adults are exhibiting
signs of severe stress or depression at an early
age.
 
Use Parallel Structures to Link Ideas,
Sentences, and Paragraphs
*Parallelism is the use of matching words,
phrases, clauses, or sentence structures to
express similar ideas. Parallel structures allow
the reader to flow smoothly from one idea,
sentence, or paragraph to the next and to
understand the relationships and connections
between ideas.
 Examples:  Usually, the children spend the
summer weekends playing ball in
park, swimming in the neighbor’s
pool, eating ice cream under the tree,
or camping in the backyard.
 
 Module 2 | Lesson 2 – Rhetoric
  As Aristotle defined the term, rhetoric is “the
faculty of observing in any given case the
available means of persuasion.”
Rhetoric
Rhetoric is the ancient art of persuasion. It’s a
way of presenting and making your views
convincing and attractive to your readers or
audience. In the classical world, rhetoric was
considered one of the most important school
subjects, and no gentleman was raised without
extensive formal training in the skill. That’s why
the politicians of, say, the 19th century were so
eloquent and well-spoken in comparison with
modern politicians.
Rhetoric matters because arguments matter. If
you can persuade people to come around to
your point of view, you can be more successful
in all sorts of subjects. And it’s not just an
academic skill!
Examples of the Use of Rhetoric
Example 1: Rhetoric in Public Speaking
Example 2: Rhetoric in Advertisement
Example 3: Rhetoric in Literature and
Scholarship
Example 4: Rhetoric in Media and Pop Culture             PATHOS: Appeal to EMOTIONS
Rhetorical Appeals
         Rhetorical appeals refer to ethos, pathos,
and logos. These are classical Greek terms,
dating back to Aristotle, who is traditionally
seen as the father of rhetoric. To be rhetorically
effective (and thus persuasive), an author must
engage the audience in a variety of compelling
ways, which involves carefully choosing how to
craft his or her argument so that the outcome,
audience agreement with the argument or
point, is achieved. Aristotle defined these
modes of engagement and gave them the terms
that we still use today: logos, pathos, and ethos.
LOGOS : Appeal to LOGIC
Logic. Reason. Rationality. Logos is brainy and
intellectual, cool, calm, collected, objective.
Logical appeals rest on rational modes of
thinking, such as
 Comparison – a comparison between one thing
(with regard to your topic) and another, similar
thing to help support your claim. It is important
that the comparison is fair and valid – the things
being compared must share significant traits of
similarity.
Cause/effect thinking – you argue that X has
caused Y, or that X is likely to cause Y to help
support your claim. Be careful with the latter –
it can be difficult to predict that something
“will” happen in the future.
 Deductive reasoning – starting with a broad,
general claim/example and using it to support a
more specific point or claim
Inductive reasoning – using several specific
examples or cases to make a broad
generalization
Exemplification – use of many examples or a
variety of evidence to support a single point
Elaboration – moving beyond just including a
fact, but explaining the significance or relevance
of that fact
Coherent thought – maintaining a well-
organized line of reasoning; not repeating ideas
or jumping around
 
When an author relies on pathos, it means that
he or she is trying to tap into the audience’s
emotions to get them to agree with the
author’s claim. An author using pathetic
appeals wants the audience to feel something:
anger, pride, joy, rage, or happiness.  Pathos-
based rhetorical strategies are any strategies
that get the audience to “open up” to the topic,
the argument, or to the author. Emotions can
make us vulnerable, and an author can use this
vulnerability to get the audience to believe that
his or her argument is a compelling one.
Pathetic appeals might include
*Expressive descriptions of people, places, or
events that help the reader to feel or
experience those events
*Vivid imagery of people, places or events that
help the reader to feel like he or she is
seeing those events
*Sharing personal stories that make the reader
feel a connection to or empathy for, the person
being described
 *Using emotion-laden vocabulary as a way to
put the reader into that specific emotional
mindset (what is the author trying to make the
audience feel? and how is he or she doing
that?)
THOS: Appeal to VALUES /TRUST
Ethical appeals have two facets: audience
values and authorial credibility/character.
On the one hand, when an author makes an
ethical appeal, he or she is attempting to  tap
into the  values  or  ideologies  that the audience
holds,  for example, patriotism, tradition, justice,
equality, dignity for all humankind, self-
preservation, or other specific social, religious or
philosophical values (Christian values, socialism,
capitalism, feminism, etc.). These values can
sometimes feel very close to emotions, but they
are felt on a social level rather than only on a
personal level. When an author evokes the
values that the audience cares about as a way
to justify or support his or her argument, we
classify that as ethos. The audience will feel that
the author is making an argument that is “right”
(in the sense of moral “right”-ness, i.e., On the
other hand, this sense of referencing what is
“right” in an ethical appeal connects to the
other sense of ethos: the  author. Ethos that is
centered on the author revolves around two
concepts: the credibility of the author and his or
her character.
*Credibility of the speaker/author is
determined by his or her knowledge and
expertise in the subject at hand.
*Character is another aspect of ethos, and it is
different from credibility because it involves
personal history and even personality traits. A
person can be credible but lack character or vice
versa.
Thus, ethos comes down to trust. How can the
author get the audience to trust him or her so
that they will accept his or her argument? How
can the author make him or herself appear as a
credible speaker who embodies the character
traits that the audience values?
In building ethical appeals, we see authors
-Referring either directly or indirectly to the
values that matter to the intended audience (so
that the audience will trust the speaker)
-Using language, phrasing, imagery, or other
writing styles common to people who hold
those values, thereby “talking the talk” of
people with those values (again, so that the
audience is inclined to trust the speaker)
-Referring to their experience and/or authority
with the topic (and therefore demonstrating
their credibility)
-Referring to their own character, or making an
effort to build their character in the text