INRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY/ELECTRICAL SYSTEM, ENERGY,

SOURCES and ALTERNATIVE SOURCES

 ELECTRICITY

Electricity figures everywhere in our lives. Electricity lights up our homes, cooks our food,
powers our computers, television sets, and other electronic devices. Electricity from batteries keeps our
cars running and makes our flashlights shine in the dark.

But what is electricity? Where does it come from? How does it

work? Before we understand all that, we need to know a little bit
about atoms and their structure.

All matter is made up of atoms, and atoms are made up of

smaller particles. The three main particles making up an atom are the
proton, the neutron and the electron.

Electrons spin around the center, or nucleus, of atoms, in the

same way the moon spins around the earth. The nucleus is made up of
neutrons and protons.

Electrons contain a negative charge, protons a positive charge. Neutrons are neutral – they
have neither a positive nor a negative charge.

There are many different kinds of atoms, one for each

type of element. An atom is a single part that makes up an
element. There are 118 different known elements that make
up everything! Some elements like oxygen we breathe are
essential to life.

Each atom has a specific number of electrons,

protons and neutrons. But no matter how many particles an
atom has, the number of electrons usually needs to be the
same as the number of protons. If the numbers are the same, the atom is called balanced, and it is very
stable.

So, if an atom had six protons, it should also have six electrons. The element with six protons
and six electrons is called carbon. Carbon is found in abundance in the sun, stars, comets, atmospheres
of most planets, and the food we eat. Coal is made of carbon; so are diamonds.

Some kinds of atoms have loosely attached electrons. An atom that loses electrons has more
protons than electrons and is positively charged. An atom that gains electrons has more negative
particles and is negatively charge. A "charged" atom is called an "ion."

Electrons can be made to move from one atom to another. When those electrons move
between the atoms, a current of electricity is created. The electrons move from one atom to another in
a "flow." One electron is attached and another electron is lost.

This chain is similar to the fire fighter's bucket brigades in olden times. But instead of passing
one bucket from the start of the line of people to the other end, each person would have a bucket of
water to pour from one bucket to another. The result was a lot of spilled water and not enough water to

douse the fire. It is a situation that's very similar to electricity passing along a wire and a circuit. The
charge is passed from atom to atom when electricity is "passed."
 Scientists and engineers have learned many ways to move electrons off of atoms. That means
that when you add up the electrons and protons, you would wind up with one more proton instead of
being balanced.

Since all atoms want to be balanced, the atom that has been "unbalanced" will look for a free
electron to fill the place of the missing one. We say that this unbalanced atom has a "positive charge" (+)
because it has too many protons.

Since it got kicked off, the free electron moves around waiting for an unbalanced atom to give it
a home. The free electron charge is negative, and has no proton to balance it out, so we say that it has a
"negative charge" (-).

So what do positive and negative charges have to do with electricity?

Scientists and engineers have found several ways to create large numbers of positive atoms and
free negative electrons. Since positive atoms want negative electrons so they can be balanced, they
have a strong attraction for the electrons. The electrons also want to be part of a balanced atom, so they
have a strong attraction to the positive atoms. So, the positive attracts the negative to balance out.

The more positive atoms or negative electrons you have, the stronger the attraction for the
other. Since we have both positive and negative charged groups attracted to each other, we call the
total attraction "charge."

Energy also can be measured in joules. Joules sounds exactly like the word jewels, as in
diamonds and emeralds. A thousand joules is equal to a British thermal unit.

When electrons move among the atoms of matter, a current of electricity is created. This is what
happens in a piece of wire. The electrons are passed from atom to atom, creating an electrical current
from one end to other, just like in the picture.

Electricity is conducted through some things better than others do. Its resistance measures how
well something conducts electricity. Some things hold their electrons very tightly. Electrons do not move
through them very well. These things are called insulators. Rubber, plastic, cloth, glass and dry air are
good insulators and have very high resistance.

Other materials have some loosely held electrons, which move through them very easily. These
are called conductors. Most metals – like copper, aluminum or steel – are good conductors.

 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS

Electricity is measured in terms of amperage, voltage, and wattage. Amperage (amps for short) is a
measure of the AMOUNT of electricity used. Voltage (volts) measures the pressure, or FORCE, of
electricity. The amps multiplied by the volts gives you the wattage (watts), a measure of the WORK that
electricity does per second.

Think of it this way: Electricity flowing through a wire is like water flowing through a garden hose. The
amount of water that can fit through the hose depends on the diameter of the hose (amps). The
pressure of the water depends on how far open the faucet is (volts). The amount of work that can be
done (watts) depends on both the amount and the pressure of the water (volts x amps = watts).

POWER
- The product of potential difference and current in a direct-current circuit. In an alternating
current circuit, power is equal to the product of the effective voltage, the effective current, and
cosine of the phase angle between current and voltage.

W=VxA
 Wattage
-an amount of power, esp. the power required to operate an electrical device or appliance,
expressed in watts.

Watt
-the SI unit of power, equal to one joule per second or to the power represented by a current of
one ampere flowing across a potential difference of one volt. Abbr.: W

Kilowatt
-a unit of power, equal to 1,000 watts. Abbr.: kW

Kilowatt-hour
-a unit of energy, equal to the energy transferred or expended by one kilowatt in one hour; a
common unit of electric power consumption. Abbr.: kWh

OHM’s LAW
- The law that for any electric current (I) is directly proportional to the voltage (V) and inversely
proportional to the resistance (R).

I = V/R
Current
-the rate of flow of electric charge in a circuit per unit time.
-measured in Amperes. Abbr.: A
-Amperage- the strength of an electric current, measured or expressed in amperes; analogous
to the rate of water flow

Voltage
-potential difference or electromotive force expressed in volts; analogous to pressure in water.
-measured in Volts. Abbr.: V

Resistance
-the opposition of a conductor to the flow of current, causing some of the electric energy to be
transformed into heat energy. Abbr.: R
-usually measured in Ohms. Symbol: Ω

JOULE’s LAW
- The principle that the rate of production of heat by a direct current is directly proportional to
the resistance of the circuit and to the square of the current.

P = I²R
 ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT:

Electrons with a negative charge, can't "jump" through the air to a positively charged atom.
They have to wait until there is a link or bridge between the negative area and the positive area. We
usually call this bridge a "circuit."
 A simple circuit diagram.

When a circuit is created, the electrons begin moving quickly. Depending on the resistance of
the material making up the bridge, they try to get across as fast as they can. If you're not careful, too
many electrons can go across at one time and destroy the "bridge" or the circuit, in the process.

We can limit the number of electrons crossing over the "circuit," by letting only a certain
number through at a time. And we can make electricity do something for us while they are on their way.
For example, we can "make" the electrons "heat" a filament in a bulb, causing it to glow and give off
light.

When we limit the number of electrons that can cross over our circuit, we say we are giving it
"resistance". We "resist" letting all the electrons through. This works something like a tollbooth on a
freeway bridge. Copper wire is just one type of bridge we use in circuits.

Before electrons can move far, however, they can collide with one of the atoms along the way.
This slows them down or even reverses their direction. As a result, they lose energy to the atoms. This
energy appears as heat, and the scattering is a resistance to the current.

Think of the bridge as a garden hose. The current of electricity is the water flowing in the hose
and the water pressure is the voltage of a circuit. The diameter of the hose is the determining factor for
the resistance.

Current refers to the movement of charges. In an electrical circuit – electrons move from the
negative pole to the positive. If you connected the positive pole of an electrical source to the negative
pole, you create a circuit. This charge changes into electrical energy when the poles are connected in a
circuit – similar to connecting the two poles on opposite ends of a battery.

Along the circuit you can have a light bulb and an on-off switch. The light bulb changes the
electrical energy into light and heat energy.

Kinds of circuit:
1. Series Circuit
2. Parallel Circuit

Series Circuit:
- An arrangement of components in an electric circuit in which the same current flows through
each component in turn without branching
 Diagram of a Series Circuit

Parallel Circuit:
 An arrangement of components in an electric circuit in which all positive terminals are
connected to one conductor and all negative terminals are connected to a second conductor,
the same voltage being applied to each component.

Diagram of a Parallel Circuit.

 ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION SYSTEM:

 1. Service/ Power plant
2. High-voltage transmission lines
3. Substations
4. Distribution lines

The electricity first goes to a transformer at the power plant that boosts the voltage up to
400,000 volts. When electricity travels long distances it is better to have it at higher voltages. Another
way of saying this is that electricity can be transferred more efficiently at high voltages.

The long thick cables of transmission lines are made of copper or aluminum because they have a
low resistance. You'll that the higher the resistance of a wire, the warmer it gets. So, some of the
electrical energy is lost because it is changed into heat energy. High voltage transmission lines carry
electricity long distances to a substation.

The power lines go into substations near businesses, factories and homes. Here transformers
change the very high voltage electricity back into lower voltage electricity.

From these substations (like in the photo to the right), electricity in different power levels is
used to run factories, streetcars and mass transit, light street lights and stop lights, and is sent to your
neighborhood.

In your neighborhood, another small transformer mounted on pole (distribution lines) or in a

utility box converts the power to even lower levels to be used in your house. The voltage is eventually
reduced to 220 volts for larger appliances, like stoves and clothes dryers, and 110 volts for lights, TVs
and other smaller appliances.

When electricity enters your home, it must pass through a meter. A utility company worker
reads the meter so the company will know how much electricity you used and can bill you for the cost.

After being metered, the electricity goes through a fuse box into your home. The fuse box
protects the house in case of problems. When a fuse (or a circuit breaker) "blows" or "trips" something
is wrong with an appliance or something was short- circuited.

 ENERGY:

Energy is one of the most fundamental parts of our universe.

 We use energy to do work. Energy lights our cities. Energy powers our vehicles, trains, planes
and rockets. Energy warms our homes, cooks our food, plays our music, gives us pictures on television.
Energy powers machinery in factories and tractors on a farm.

Energy from the sun gives us light during the day. It dries our clothes when they're hanging
outside on a clothes line. It helps plants grow. Energy stored in plants is eaten by animals, giving them
energy. And predator animals eat their prey, which gives the predator animal energy.

Everything we do is connected to energy in one form or another.

Energy is defined as: "the ability to do work."

Work means moving something, lifting something, warming something, lighting something. All
these are a few of the various types of work. But where does energy come from?

There are many sources of energy. In The Energy Story, we will look at the energy that makes
our world work. Energy is an important part of our daily lives.

The forms of energy we will look at include:

- Biomass
- Hydroelectric Energy
- Solar Energy
- Tidal Energy
- Ocean Thermal Energy
- Wind Energy
- Geothermal Energy
- Fossil Fuels
 Natural gas
 Coal
 Oil
- Nuclear Energy

We will also look at turbines and generators, at what electricity is, how energy is sent to users,
and how we can decrease or conserve the energy we use. Finally, we'll look at the "newer" forms of
energy... and take a look at energy in the future.

SOURCES OF ENERGY
TYPES OF SOURCES:
 Renewable
 Non-renewable

1. Renewable - can be regenerated in a short amount of time or is basically unlimited.

Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally
replenished on a human timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat.
Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot
water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

Based on REN21's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to our energy consumption and
22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively. Both, modern renewables, such
as hydro, wind, solar and biofuels, as well as traditional biomass, contributed in about equal parts to the
global energy supply.

 Biomass
  Hydroelectric Energy
 Solar Energy
 Tidal Energy
 Ocean Thermal Energy
 Wind Energy
 Geothermal Energy

2. Non-Renewable - can’t be replaced in a short amount of time and is limited.

Energy exists freely in nature. Some of them exist infinitely (never run out, called RENEWABLE),
the rest have finite amounts (they took millions of years to form, and will run out one day, called NON-
RENEWABLE).

Non-renewable energy is energy from fossil fuels (coal, crude oil, natural gas) and uranium. Fossil
fuels are mainly made up of Carbon. It is believed that fossil fuels were formed over 300 million years
ago, when the earth was a lot different in its landscape. It had swampy forests and very shallow seas.
This time is referred to as 'Carboniferous Period'

 Fossil Fuels
- Natural gas
- Coal
- Oil
 Nuclear Energy

1. Biomass
Biomass includes the use of food and wood. Energy stored in non-fossil organic materials such as
wood, straw, vegetable oils and wastes from the forest, agricultural and industrial sectors. Biomass is
one of the most important renewable energy forms and its use in Canada involves both the oldest and
the newest of energy technologies.
Biomass is captured from forest industries. To capture energy from biomass is to burn it, to make heat,
steam, and electricity.

2. Fossil Fuels
Fossil Fuels include different types of oil, gas and jet fuel. They are normally ‘natural resources’ and
are extracted from the earth itself. Non-renewable resources. Fossil Fuels may also be associated with
mineral fuels. The resources may be crushed, burnt, or turned into steam.
Fossil Fuels form from the organic remains of prehistoric plants and animals.

 Natural gas
A fossil fuel found deep in the earth. Natural gas is often found with oil.
 Coal
A solid fossil fuel found in the earth. Coal is burned to make electricity.
 Oil
A liquid fuel found deep in the earth. Gasoline and some plastics are made from oil.

3. Geothermal Energy
Geothermal Energy is power extracted from heat stored in the earth. Geothermal power is cost
effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly, but has historically been limited to areas
near tectonic plate boundaries.
This geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet, from radioactive decay
of minerals, and from solar energy absorbed at the surface.

4. Hydroelectric Energy
Hydroelectric Energy produces energy through power plants, some such as; Micro-scale, small-scale
and “run-of-the-river.” A dam is built to trap water, usually in a valley where there is an existing lake.
Water is allowed to flow through tunnels in the dam, to turn turbines and thus drive generators. Notice
that the dam is much thicker at the bottom than at the top, because the pressure of the water increases
with depth.
Hydro-electric power stations can produce a great deal of power very cheaply.

5. Nuclear Energy
Nuclear Energy work by thermal nuclear reactors and fast reactors. The thermal ones use a
moderator to slow down the neutrons produced by fission. The moderator can be normal water, heavy
water, or graphite. The normal water types are the Pressurized Water Reactor and Boiling Water
Reactor. Fast reactors don't have a moderator, and therefore cannot be built with a water filled core, so
have used liquid metal, usually sodium, as coolant.

6. Ocean thermal energy

Ocean thermal energy is obtained by the difference created due to hot water on the surface and
cold water deep inside. Steam is created due to this and that particular area is known as hot spring. This
energy is also used to generate electricity with the help of the steam created. Production of ocean
thermal energy thermal energy

7. Solar Energy
Solar Energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient
times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar powered electrical generation relies on heat
engines and photovoltaic. Solar energy's uses are limited only by human ingenuity. A partial list of solar
applications includes space heating and cooling through solar architecture, potable water via distillation
and disinfection, day lighting, solat hot water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for
industrial purposes. To harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to use solar panels.

8. Tidal Energy
Energy that is obtained by difference in sea levels due to high and low tides mainly due to the
gravitational pull of the moon is called tidal energy. This energy can be converted into electrical energy.
Conversion of tidal energy into electrical energy Wave Energy: The kinetic energy produced by huge
waves is called wave energy. This energy can be also converted into electrical energy. Conversion of
wave energy into electrical energy

9. Wind Energy
Wind energy is energy obtained from moving air. is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form
of energy. Some such as using wind turbines to make electricity, wind mills for mechanical power, wind
pumps for pumping water or drainage, or sails to propel ships.
The motion results from the heating and cooling of the Earth.

DEFENITION OF ELECTRICAL TERMS

BASIC ELECTRICAL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS:

The following is a list of many of the terms one would encounter in the study of basic electrical
systems. The terms are defined in their electrical context.

Alternating Current (ac)

- Current from a power source that changes polarity periodically.

Alternator
- A device that supplies alternating current.

American wire gauge (AWG)

- A standard for wire sizes, with the smallest being designated as forty (40) and the largest as four
aught (4/0).
Ammeter
- An instrument used for measuring current.

Ampcity
- The current–carrying capacity of conductors in amperes.

Amperage (A)
- The amount of electric current in amperes.

Ampere (A)
- The unit of measurement for current. One ampere is that current whereby one coulomb of
charge passes through a point in one second. Named for André Ampere.

Ampere-hour (Ah)
- Unit of measurement for cell or battery capacity. One Ah generally means that a current of one
amp has been flowing for one hour.

Amplifier
- An electronic circuit that boost the voltage and/or the current level of a signal.

Analog
- Generally refers to signals that have many discrete values versus digital binary signal that have
only two states. Also, refers to the branch of electronics dealing with such signals and their
circuits. The term linear is another term often used for such circuits and signals.

Analog-to-digital converter (A/D)

- A circuit or devise used to convert an analog signal to a digital form.

AND gate or logic

- Generates a logic 1 only if all of its two or more inputs are 1.

Apparent power
- The product of voltage times current in a circuit containing reactance and measured in volt-
amps.

Armature
- The moving part of a motor or generator.

Autotransformer
- A power transformer having one continuous winding that is tapped.

Ballast
- A device used to provide starting current for certain types of lamps (fluorescent).

Battery
- A direct-current power source consisting of two or more cells.

Binary
- In electronics, a number system that has two as its base; therefore any position has only two
possible values, 0 or 1. A signal that has only two possible states at any instance.

Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

- A transistor type having two PN junctions, configured as NPN or PNP. May be used as an
amplifier or switch.

Bit
 - A single binary digit, can be either a 0 or 1.

Bridge
- See Wheatstone bridge

Brush
- A conductive block used to make sliding contact with an armature.

Byte
- A group of eight binary bits, commonly used to represent digital data.

Cable
- A stranded conductor or group of individual conductors insulated from each other.

Capacitance (C)
- The ability of two conductors separated by an insulator to store an electrical charge; measured
in farads (F).

Capacitive reactance (XC)

- The opposition that a capacitor offers to alternating current. This opposition, in the form of a
counter electromotive force (cemf),is expressed in ohms.

Capacitor
- A device designed to provide a specific amount of capacitance.

Cell
- A device that transforms one form of energy into electrical energy. An example would be a
chemical dry cell commonly used in flashlights (D, C, AA, AAA) and other electric devices. These
are often referred to as batteries.

Central processing unit (CPU)

- The part of a computer that performs the arithmetic, logic, and control functions.

Circuit
- An arrangement or connection of circuit devices and components to perform a specific
objective. In the simplest form it would require an energy source, a load to transform the
energy into the desired task, and conductors to connect the source to the load. In most
applications a control device (switch) would be included and may also include a protective
device. Common example of a simple circuit would be a flashlight.

Circuit breaker
- A circuit protection device that opens the circuit automatically when an overload or short circuit
occurs.

Closed circuit
- A circuit that provides a complete path for current.

Coil
- A wound spiral of two or more turns of insulated wire, used to introduce inductance into a
circuit, produce a magnetic field from current flow, or to respond to a changing magnetic field
by producing a voltage or mechanical motion.

Component/s
- In electronics, a general term to refer to a part or parts of a circuit without reference to specific
names.

Commutator
 - A cylindrical arrangement of insulated metal bars connected to the armature coils of a direct-
current electric motor or generator, providing a unidirectional current from the generator or a
reversal of current into the coils of the motor.

Conductance (G)
- The ability of a conductor to allow the flow of electrons. Measured in Siemens (S). The
reciprocal of resistance.

Conductor
- A low-resistance material to provide a path for current. Used to interconnect components in a
circuit.

Conventional current
- A direction flow assignment that has current flowing from positive to negative.

Coulomb

- Base unit of electrical charge equal to 6.25 X 1018 electrons. Named for Charles Coulomb, the
French physicist who pioneered research into magnetism and electricity. He also formulated
Coulomb's law which states that the force of attraction or repulsion between two charged
bodies is equal to the product of the two charges and is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them. F= Q1 x Q2/d2

Crystal
- A natural or synthetic crystalline material having piezoelectric properties. As a transducer, used
to convert dynamic pressures (vibrations) to ac electricity or change ac electricity into vibrations.

Current (I)
- The rate of flow of electrons through a conductor or component; measured in amperes. The
symbol (I) stands for intensity of the electron flow.

Cycle
- One complete wave of alternating voltage or current.

Dielectric
- A nonconductor of electricity. An insulator that is capable of concentrating electric fields.

Difference of potential
- See electromotive force and voltage.

Digital
- Generally in electronics, refers to signals, devices, or circuits that are binary, meaning they only
have two states (high or low, 1 or 0, on or off). The branch of electronics dealing with such
signals and their circuits.

Digital-to-analog converter (D/A)

- A circuit that converts a binary signal to an equivalent analog form.

Diode
- A semiconductor device that only allows current to pass through it in one direction, cathode to
anode. Also, a classification of semiconductor devices having only one junction. Examples
include: rectifier, zener, varactor, and tunnel diodes.

Direct Current (dc)

- Current from a power source that continually flows in the same direction. An electrical source
of constant polarity.
Duty Cycle
- The ratio of pulse width to period, indicates the percentage of time a pulse is present during a
cycle.

Electricity
- The physical phenomena arising from the behavior of electrons and protons that is caused by
the attraction of particles with opposite charges and the repulsion of particles with the same
charge. The physical science of such phenomena. Also, electric current used or regarded as a
source of power.

Electric energy
- The energy carried by free electrons from a source to a load. Also, the potential energy of a
stationary charge.

Electric power (P)

- The rate at which energy is consumed in a circuit or load. Measured in watts (W).

Electrolyte
- A chemical solution used in cells and some capacitors to produce an electrically conductive
medium.

Electrolytic capacitor
- A capacitor whose dielectric is formed through the reaction of an electrolyte and its electrodes.

Electromagnet
- A device that produces a magnetic field as the result of current flow through a coil of wire.

Electromechanical
- A classification of actions or devices whereby a mechanical action is caused by the forces of
attraction or repulsion created when current flow generates magnetic fields (electromagnetic).

Electromotive Force (emf)

- The force or electrical pressure that has the potential to cause electron flow in a circuit. Also
called voltage, potential difference or difference of potential. Measured in volts (V).

Electrostatic field
- An electric field produced by stationary charges.

Farad (F)
- The basic unit of measurement for capacitance. One farad is that capacitance that will store one
coulomb of charge when the charging force is one volt. Since the farad is a very large unit,
capacitance will more commonly be expressed as microfarad (uF) or picofarad (pF) values.
Named for Michael Farady, the British physicist and chemist who discovered electromagnetic
induction and proposed the field theory later developed by Maxwell and Einstein.

Field Effect Transistor (FET)

- A transistor type that uses voltage to control current through the device. See JFET and MOSFET.

Filter
- A circuit designed to pass a specific frequency range while rejecting all others.

Flux
- Generally refers to a magnetic line of force but may also describe an electric line of force.

Frequency
- The number of cycles per second for a periodic waveform. Measured in hertz (Hz).

Fuse
 - A protective device designed to interrupt current flow (open) through a circuit when current
exceeds a rated value.

Gate
- A logic circuit performing a specific logic function. See AND, OR, NAND, OR and NOT.

Gauss
- A unit of measurement for magnetic field.

Generator
- A device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.

Ground
- The common return path for current in an electrical circuit. Serves as a reference point for
measuring all other potentials in a circuit. Generally assumed to be at zero potential with
respect to the earth. Other than earth references may be used such as the chassis of an
automobile (chassis ground) or some arbitrary point in a circuit (circuit ground) like the negative
side of the power source.

Heat sink
- A device attached to a component to aid in the dissipation of heat.

Henry (H)
- The unit of inductance in which an induced electromotive force of one volt is produced when
the current is varied at the rate of one ampere per second. Named for Joseph Henry, an
American physicist who performed extensive studies of electromagnetic phenomena.

Hertz (Hz)
- A unit of frequency equal to one cycle per second. Named for Heinrich Hertz, a German
physicist who was the first to produce radio waves artificially.

Impedance (Z)
- Opposition to current flow from the combined effects of resistance and reactance measured in
ohms (S).

Inductance (L)
- The property of a circuit that opposes a change in current. Also, the property of a circuit to store
energy in the form of a magnetic field and release it back into the circuit at a later time.

Inductive Reactance (XL)

- The opposition that an inductor offers to alternating current. This opposition, in the form of a
counter electromotive force (cemf), is expressed in ohms.

Inductor
- An electrical device designed to provide a specific amount of inductance; measured in henrys
(H).

Insulation
- Nonconductive material used to cover wires and components to prevent shock and short
circuits.

Insulator
- A material that has a high resistance to current flow.

Integrated Circuit (IC)

- The placement of numerous components and circuits on to a silicon chip.
Internal resistance
- The resistance within a power source.

Inverter
- A logic devise (NOT function) whose output is always opposite the input. Also refers to a devise
that converts dc to ac.

Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

- A transistor type made by diffusing a gate region into a channel region. Voltage applied to the
gate controls current in the channel by either depleting or enhancing the channel.

Joule
- The basic unit of electrical, mechanical, and thermal energy. As a unit of electrical energy it is
equal to the energy carried by 1 coulomb of charge being propelled by an electromotive force of
1 volt. Named for James Joule, the British physicist who established the mechanical theory of
heat and discovered the first law of thermodynamics.

Kilo (k)
- Metric prefix for units of measurement equal to thousands (1000 or 103). As an example: 1
kilohertz (kHz) equals 1000hz.

Kilowatthour (kWh)
- Unit of energy consumption equal to 1000 watt-hours or the energy consumed at the rate to
one kilowatt (kW) for a time of one hour. Equivalent to 3,600,000 joules. Generally used to
specify a large energy consumption over a specific time interval. Residential energy is usually
priced at the number of kilowatt-hours used for a month.

Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert

- The German physicist noted for his research in spectrum analysis, optics, and electricity.
Developed fundamental DC circuit laws dealing with current characteristics in a parallel circuit
and voltage characteristics in a series circuit. His current law states that the current entering a
connection has to equal the current leaving that connection, and that the sum of the load
currents has to equal the source current (or sum of source currents for multiple parallel sources)
(IT = I1+I2+------+IN). His voltage law states that around any closed loop of series connected
components, the sum of the voltage drops must equal the source voltage (or sum of source
voltages for multiple series connected sources. (VT = V1+V2+ ------ +VN).

Lamp
- A light producing device consisting of a filament placed in a vacuum.

Law of magnetic poles

- Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.

Liquid crystal display (LCD)

- A display type using changes in reflectivity to generate various characters.

Lenz’s Law
- Basic law of electromagnetic induction which states that an induced voltage will have a polarity
that opposes the current change that produced it.

Light-emitting diode (LED)

- A semiconductor diode that emits light as current flows from the cathode to the anode across its
PN junction.

Linear
- A circuit or component where the output is a straight line (direct proportion) function of the
input.
Load
- A device or apparatus that uses the energy of a circuit to perform work. May also refer to the
power used by a device, machine, or a combination of many.

Magnet
- An object which produces a magnetic field in the surrounding space.

Magnetic field
- The detectable magnetic flux issuing from a magnet or electromagnet.

Magnetic poles
- The two points of strongest concentration of magnetic flux around a magnet or electromagnet.
By assignment the flux leaves the north pole and returns to the south pole.

Magnetic saturation
- The point where an increase in magnetic force produces no further magnetic effect in a
magnetic material. The material can have no further increase in flux. Iron, nickel, cobalt, and
their alloys are considered to be magnetic materials.

Magnetism
- The physical phenomena exhibited by magnets and electric current flow that is represented by
lines of force.

Mega (M)
- Prefix for units of measurement equal to millions (1,000,000 or 106).

Metal oxide field-effect transistor (MOSFET)

- Also called insulated gate field effect transistor (IGFET). A transistor type that uses an electric
field to control conduction.

Micro (u)
- Prefix for units of measurement equal to millionths (1/1,000,000 or 10-6).

Milli (m)
- Prefix for units of measurement equal to thousandths (1/1000 or 10-3).

Multimeter
- An instrument that can measure current, voltage, and resistance on various ranges. Many
multimeters can measure other circuit values such as frequency and capacitance. May have
digital (DMM) or analog displays (VOM).

Negative
- For sources, implies the terminal that has an excess of electrons. Also, can imply the polarity of
a point in a circuit in respect to some other point.

Nonlinear
- A circuit or component whose output versus input graph is not a straight line.

North-seeking pole
- That pole of a magnetic which points to the earth’s north pole when free to turn.

Norton’s theorem
- A method of reducing a complex network of bilateral (conducts equally well in both directions)
components to one current source and one shunt resistance across the load terminals.

Ohm (S)
 - The unit of measurement for resistance. Named for Georg Simon Ohm, the German physicist
noted for his contributions to mathematics, acoustics, and the measurement of electrical
resistance. One ohm is that resistance that limits the current to one ampere when a potential of
one volt exist across its terminals.

Ohm’s law
- Very basic circuit law that defines the relationships between current, voltage, and resistance in a
DC circuit. Ohm’s law states that current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely
proportional to resistance. (I = V/R) The other forms of the formula are V = IR and R = V/I.

Ohmmeter
- An instrument for measuring resistance.

Operational Amplifier (Op Amp)

- A highly stable direct coupled amplifier resistant to oscillation. May be packaged in an IC
format.

OR gate or logic
- Generates a logic 1 if any one of its two or more inputs are 1.

Oscillator
- A circuit that converts dc power into ac signals with constant frequency. Also, an instrument
that generates ac signals whose frequency and amplitude can be varied. These are also
referred to as signal generators.

Oscilloscope
- An instrument that displays a plot of voltage over time. Often referred to as a scope.

Overload
- A load in excess of the design limit for a circuit.

Parallel circuit
- A circuit with two or more loads (or sources) connected such that all have the same voltage but
different currents. Each load can be operated independent of the others. Parallel sources
should have equal voltage ratings.

Period
- The time in seconds that is required to complete one cycle of a waveform.

Permeability
- The ability of a magnetic material to conduct magnetic lines of force.

Phase
- A time relationship between two electrical quantities.

Polarity
- For electrical charge, the indication of a charge as either positive (+) or negative (-). Voltage at a
point would be indicated as being either positive or negative with respect to some other point.
For magnetic poles, the indication as either north or south.

Positive
- For sources, implies the terminal that has a deficiency of free electrons. Also, can imply the
polarity of a point in a circuit in respect to some other point.

Potentiometer
 - A three-terminal resistor with an adjustable center connection generally used to control voltage;
widely used for volume control in radio and television receivers. In this sense, also called a Pot.

Power
- The rate at which energy is consumed. In electronics it refers to the consumption of electrical
energy in joules over time; measured in watts.

Power factor(PF)
- The ratio of true power to the apparent power in a circuit, especially those that are not purely
resistive. It is also equal to the cosine of the phase angle for the circuit.

Power supply
- Generally, a device or circuit used to convert alternating current (ac) of specific voltage to one or
more direct current (dc) values of specific voltage and current ratings. May have variable voltage
ability in some instances. May also refer to a device that converts a specific dc value to another
dc value (dc to dc converter).

Primary cell
- A device that uses up its ingredients to convert chemical energy to electrical energy and
therefore can not be recharged.

Primary winding
- The input winding to a transformer.

Printed circuit (PC) board

- A fiberglass board with copper foil as the conductors to interconnect the attached electrical
components.

Random-access memory (RAM)

- A read/write memory that allows date storage (Write) and data retrieval (Read) to any location
in any order. Considered to be temporary (volatile) in that the contents are lost if power is
turned off.

Reactance
- Opposition to current offered by capacitors and inductors in the form of a counter-
electromotive force (cemf), but expressed in ohms. Reactance does not consume power but
gives the appearance that it does.

Rectifier
- A solid state device that converts alternating current to pulsed direct current.

Relay
- An electromechanical device that uses electromagnetism to mechanically switch electrical
circuits. The output contacts are designed to be either normally open (NO) or normally closed
(NC). Some relays provide both arrangements and multiple switches.

Resistance (R)
- The opposition to current flow in a circuit; measured in ohms.

Resistor
- An electrical component designed to provide a specific resistance. Available in many formats
such as fixed, tapped, and variable. See potentiometer and rheostat.

Resonance
- A circuit condition when the inductive reactance (XL) equals the capacitive reactance (XC). A
resonant circuit is one that has been tuned to that condition and resonant frequency is that
 frequency that resonance occurs in a circuit and provides a maximum output for one of its
circuit variables.

Rheostat
- A two-terminal resistor with an adjustable center connection and one end connection generally
used to control current.

Ripple
- The small amount of ac voltage that still remains in the output of a dc power supply.

Schematic or schematic diagram

- A drawing depicting how the components are connected using standardized symbols.

Secondary cell
- A device whose ingredients convert chemical energy to electrical energy but can be recharged.

Secondary winding
- The output winding of a transformer or one of several output windings.

Series circuit
- A circuit arrangement of two or more loads (or sources) connected end-to-end only allowing for
one current path. Therefore, all components have the same current but can have different
voltage. An open at any point or in any component interrupts current flow for all.

Semiconductor
- Any of various solid crystalline substances, such as germanium or silicon, having electrical
conductivity greater than insulators but less than good conductors. In electronics these are
generally doped to from either N type or P type material. These materials are the foundational
material for diodes and transistors.

Short circuit
- An undesirable low resistance path between two points in a circuit.

Siemen (S)
- The unit of measurement for conductance. Named for Ernst Werner von Siemens, a German
engineer who made notable improvements to telegraphic and electrical apparatus.

Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)

- See thyristor

Sine wave
- A waveform whose instantanous amplitude is a function of the sine of the angle of rotation for
that instant. The output waveform produced by rotating a loop in a magnetic field, and the
output of an oscillator generating a pure frequency.

Solar cell
- A device that converts light energy to electrical energy. Also called a photovoltaic cell.

Solder
- Any of various fusible alloys, usually tin and lead, used to join metallic parts. In electronics used
to connect components to PC boards or to aid the conductivity and mechanical junctions of
connections and splices.

Solenoid
- Electromechanical device that use electromagnetism to produce a mechanical operation.

Solid-state
 - The term that describes components or circuits that use semiconductors technology.

Source
- General term to describe devices that provides electrical energy at their output terminals to
operate a circuit. Examples: battery, solar cell, generator and alternator, or power supply.

Static electricity
- A stationary electrical charge on an object.

Stator
- The electromagnetic part of a motor or generator that does not rotate.

Stepper motor
- A motor type driven with digital codes that moves in discrete angular increments with each code
change.

Superposition theorem
- A method for analyzing a complex network of bilateral (conducts equally well in both directions)
components having multiple sources.

Surge
- A very rapid increase of current or voltage.

Switch
- A device used to open (turn off) and close (turn on) electrical circuits that can be designed to
operate by numerous actions such as toggle, slide, and pushbutton actions. Standard
configurations include SPST, SPDT, DPST, and DPDT.

Terminal
- A connection point for electrical components or conductors.

Thermistor
- A resistor made of semiconductor material having resistance that varies rapidly and predictably
with temperature. Used as a temperature sensor, the resistance varies inversely with
temperature.

Thermocouple
- A thermoelectric device used to measure temperatures accurately, consist of two dissimilar
metals joined so that a potential difference is generated that is representative of the
temperature of the junction.

Thevenin’s theorem
- A method of reducing a complex network of bilateral (conducts equally well in both directions)
components to one voltage source and one resistor in series with the load terminals.

Thyristor A
- broad classification of semiconductor devices used as electronic switches. Examples include
diacs, SCRs, and triacs.

Transducer
- A device used to convert input energy of one form into output energy of another.

Transformer
- A device used to transfer electric energy from one circuit to another, especially a pair of multiply
wound, inductively coupled wire coils that effect such a transfer with a change in voltage,
current, phase, or other electric characteristic. Generally used to convert one voltage-current
 relationship to another. Step-up transformer, increase the voltage while decreasing the current,
and step-down transformer decrease the voltage while increasing the current.

Transistor
- A small electronic semiconductor device having at least three electrical contacts, used in a
circuit as an amplifier or a switch. See: BJT, JFET, MOSFET.

True power
- The actual power consumed by a circuit; measured in watts.

Volt (V)
- The unit by which an electromotive force or voltage is measured. Named for Alessandro Volta,
the Italian physicist who invented the first electric battery (1800).

Voltage (V)
- Same as emf. The force or electrical pressure that has the potential to cause electron flow in a
circuit.

Voltage divider
- A series circuit that divides voltage.

Voltage drop
- The difference in potential between two points caused by current flow through a component.

Voltmeter
- An instrument used to measure voltage.

Watt (W)
- The unit of measurement for power. One watt equals to the work done when one joule is used
per second. Named for James Watt the British engineer and inventor.

Watt-hour (Wh)
- Unit of energy consumed at the rate of one watt (W) for a time of one hour. Equivalent to 3,600
joules.

Wheatstone bridge
- An instrument or a circuit consisting of four resistors or their equivalent in a series-parallel
arrangement, used to determine the value of an unknown resistance when the other three
resistances are known.

Wiring diagram
- A graphic representation of how circuit components are connected.

Zener Diode
- A semiconductor device designed to operate at a fixed voltage as a voltage regulator.

-END-

Sources:
A Visual Dictionary of Architecture by Francis D.K. Ching
http://www.nwscc.edu/nsfdc/technology/DCTermspage.htm
http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/.html
http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blelectric1.htm
http://energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter07.html
https://www.chooseenergy.com/how-energy-choice-works/energy-101/