COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Table of Contents
MEANING AND ROLE OF COMMUNICATION.......................................................................2
ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION...........................................................2
IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANIZATION..............................................2
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHPS.........................................................................................3
COMMUNICATION PROCESS...............................................................................................5
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION...............................................................................................6
BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICAITON.......................................................................6
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION (7CS).............................................................................8
BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE...........................................................................................10
QUALITIES OF AN OFFICIAL LETTER...................................................................................12
QUESTIONNARIES..............................................................................................................13
CURRICULUM VITAE (CV)...................................................................................................14
MEETING(S)........................................................................................................................14
TYPES OF MEETINGS..........................................................................................................14
TERMINOLGIES USED IN MEETINGS..................................................................................16
PREPARATION FOR A MEETING.........................................................................................18
PROCEDURE OF HOLDING.................................................................................................19
ROLE OF THE SECRETARY...................................................................................................19
INTERVIEWS.......................................................................................................................21
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS.......................................................................................................21
REPORTS............................................................................................................................25
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE REPORT...................................................................26
ORAL/VERBAL COMMUNICATION.....................................................................................28
IMPORTANCE OF ORAL COMMUNICATION (ADVANTAGES).............................................28
BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE ORAL COMMUNICATION...........................................................28
IMPORTANCE OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION..........................................................30
BARRIERS OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION.................................................................30
OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION...........................................33
TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPEMNT IN COMMUNICATION..................................................33
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IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY IN COMMUNICATION..............................................................35

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Objectives
 Explain the meaning of the term communication
 Explain the role of communication in an organization
 Explain interpersonal relations

MEANING AND ROLE OF COMMUNICATION

Definition of communication:
Communication is the process of sharing our ideas, thoughts, and feelings with
other people and having those ideas, thoughts, and feelings understood by the
people we are talking with. When we communicate we speak, listen, and
observe.
It is the process of sending and receiving message e.g. conveying a message
from one place to another. A message can be information that is transmitted and
received during the process of communication.
Communication may be one way or two way. One way communication is when
there is no feedback. In a situation where there is no feedback, communication
breakdown is said to have taken place.

ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANISATION

 To obtain information
 To provide information
 To initiate an action
 To prevent an action
 To request for an action.
 To advice / consult
 To learn
 To entertain

IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION IN AN ORGANIZATION

For manager – employee relations:
Effective communication of information and decision is an essential component

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for management-employee relations. The manager cannot get the work done
from employees unless they are communicated effectively of what he wants to be
done? He should also be sure of some basic facts such as how to communicate
and what results can be expected from that communication.
For motivation and employee morale
Communication is also a basic tool for motivation, which can improve morale of
the employees in an organization. Inappropriate or faulty communication among
employees or between manager and his subordinates is the major cause of
conflict and low morale at work.
For increase productivity
With effective communication, you can maintain a good human relation in the
organization and by encouraging ideas or suggestions from employees or
workers and implementing them whenever possible, you can also increase
production at low cost.
For employees
It is through the communication that employees submit their work reports,
comments, grievances and suggestions to their seniors or management.
Organization should have effective and speedy communication policy and
procedures to avoid delays, misunderstandings, confusion or distortions of facts
and to establish harmony among all the concerned people and departments.
Importance of written communication
Communication may be made through oral or written. In oral communication,
listeners can make out what speakers is trying to say, but in written
communication, text matter in the message is a reflection of your thinking. So,
written communication or message should be clear, purposeful and concise with
correct words, to avoid any misinterpretation of your message. Written
communications provides a permanent record for future use and it also gives an
opportunity to employees to put up their comments or suggestions in writing.
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHPS
An interpersonal relationship is an association between two or more people that
may range from fleeting to enduring. This association may be based on
limerence, love and liking, regular business interactions, or some other type of
social commitment. Interpersonal relationships take place in a great variety of
contexts, such as family, friends, marriage, associates, work, clubs,
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neighborhoods, and churches. They may be regulated by law, custom, or mutual
agreement, and are the basis of social groups and society as a whole. Although
humans are fundamentally social creatures, interpersonal relationships are not
always healthy. Examples of unhealthy relationships include abusive
relationships and codependence
This is defined as communication between two or more people and involves the
transfer of information (or message) from one person to the other(s). The person
transferring the information is called the sender or transmitter. The people
receiving the message are known as receivers. The transmitter will need to send
the information in a format that the receiver(s) will understand. Converting the
information into a format that the receivers will understand is known as Encoding.
Messages can be encoded into a variety of formats oral, written or visual. After
encoding the message is transferred via a medium called a channel, for example
a letter, fax, phone call, or e-mail. After transference the information will need to
be interpreted by the receiver. This process of interpretation is known as
decoding. Finally the receiver will send a message back to the transmitter
confirming whether the information sent has been understood. This back check is
known as feedback.
Development of a relationship follows five stages:
 Acquaintance – Becoming acquainted depends on previous relationships,
physical proximity, first impressions, and a variety of other factors. If two
people begin to like each other, continued interactions may lead to the
next stage, but acquaintance can continue indefinitely.
 Buildup – During this stage, people begin to trust and care about each
other. The need for compatibility and such filtering agents as common
background and goals will influence whether or not interaction continues.
 Continuation – This stage follows a mutual commitment to a long term
friendship, romantic relationship, or marriage. It is generally a long,
relative stable period. Nevertheless, continued growth and development
will occur during this time. Mutual trust is important for sustaining the
relationship.
 Deterioration – Not all relationships deteriorate, but those that do, tend to
show signs of trouble. Boredom, resentment, and dissatisfaction may
occur, and individuals may communicate less and avoid self-disclosure.
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 Loss of trust and betrayals may take place as the downward spiral
continues.
 Termination – The final stage marks the end of the relationship, either by
death in the case of a healthy relationship, or by separation.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Conceiving the message
 When conceiving the message, the sender tries to find out the best means
of sending the message.
 The decision to send a message results from an impulse, a thought or
external stimulus
 Once you send the message at the right time the receiver can get it.
 Before sending out the message one has to study the recipient then.
Encoding the message
 Where the appropriate language is chosen.
 The sender must ensure that he message is put in a way that can be
easily understood by the recipient.
Choosing the medium
An intelligent decision has to be made in selecting the method of transmission
e.g. considering the speed, cost, availability and the distance.

Decoding the message

This is the procedure of receiving the message. The incoming message is given
the attention it deserves. This is where also translation of the message takes
place.
Providing the feedback
This when the recipient acknowledges the received messages. The recipient
sends a reply to the sender. This is very important because it ensures success in
communication.

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TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
A. Self-Action or One-Way Communication

This is focused on getting the message to the receiver. Self-action treats

communication as a manipulation of others. It is very message centered. There is
no way to know if the meaning is shared between the sender and the receiver.

B. Interaction or Two-Way Communication.

This approach recognizes the role of the receiver as a communicator through

feedback. It is message centered and is a very simplistic view of the
communication process. Feedback allows senders to see if their message got
across.

C. Transaction.

This approach focuses on meaning and sharing by accounting for all other
factors in the communication process. It is concerned with the barriers that might
affect the communication. Transaction is best described as effective
communication. This is when the communication process is applied and carried
out completely. The sender gives a message that is passed on to the receiver. In
return, the receiver can give clear feedback that allows the sender to know
whether or not the message was perceived as intended.

BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICAITON

Even if the steps of communication are followed successfully, several barriers
may prevent an individual from communicating effectively.

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Communication is effective only when the receiver understands the message as
intended by the sender. Interference in the process of communication that may
distort and obscure the senders meaning is referred to as noise.
Noise takes the form of various communication barriers an can exist between
individuals as well a organizations. Noise can also be referred to as anything
interfering with the flow of communication. This may occur at any stage.
Barriers usually distort a message so that the message received is different from
the one sent.
Technical barriers
By using technology, several machines and equipments may be involved in the
process of communication. Machines are known to fail at any one given time.
When this happens, it may result in communication breakdown.
Physical barriers
These are natural occurrences that may cause destruction as well as locking
communication process. When this happens information may not reach the
intended recipient or it may reduce the receiver ’s concentration.
Psychological barriers.
As communication is taking place, interpretation of a message may depend on
what is in the mind of the receiver. Attitude, perception pre-judgment may be
responsible for interpreting a message in a different way that may not be
intended by the sender.

OVERCOMING BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION.

 In order to succeed in communication the following points must be
considered;
 The message should be sent to the right person at the right time at the
right place
 The message should originate form the right person
 The message should be clear and easy to understand
 Suitable language should be selected that can be easily understood by the
receiver.
 Communication should be done at a maximum speed.

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PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION (7CS)
Conciseness
Effective messages use the fewest no of words possible. This brings about the
aspect of being brief and to the point
Completeness
Messages written must be complete e.g. the receiver of a message should ask
himself or herself questions after reading the message.
Clarity
If the message is clear, chances of misinterpretation is drastically reduced.
In order to be clear, the correct sentence structure, punctuation and spelling must
be used. The way the message is laid out contribute to clarity
Use of visual aids may also be employed to facilitate clarity.
Consistency
While communicating, the receiver should be able to predict he future information
basing on the past. This enhances understandability
Coherence
There should be a sequential flow of information by starting with the obvious
information as you move to the unknown.
Concreteness
Despite the fact that communication should be facilitated using the fewest no of
worked sometimes it may be necessary to include all the necessary details /
information. This contributes to understanding the important information that is
being passed across.
Correctness
Wrong information may cause confusion or lead to bad decisions. It can also bind
someone or an organization into doing something that may be costly. This outline
the reason as to why the information passed should always be correct.

SUMMARY WRITING
Definition

Formed into a sum; summed up; reduced into a narrow compass, or into few
words; short; brief; concise; compendious; as, a summary statement of facts

Characteristics of a good summary

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  Brief

 Complete

 Paraphrased

 Objective

Steps in Writing a Summary:

Prewriting

 Read the article carefully, making sure you understand the

contents.

 Annotate the article, noting the thesis statement and the

major supporting details

 Using your annotations, create an outline that shows the

main organization of the article.

 Begin with a sentence that includes

- Author’s name

- Title of the article

- Thesis of the article

 According to Joe Smith in “Healthy Eating for Life, ” the foods

we choose to eat influence the length and quality of our
lives.

 Joe Smith states in “Healthy Eating for Life” that the foods
we choose to eat influence the length and quality of our
Follow with sentences that paraphrase major supporting
points

 Paraphrase = state in your own words

 Enclose any directly quoted material in quotation marks

 After the first sentence, refer to the author by last name or as

“the author”

 Smith states a diet high in animal fats and sugars can lead to
obesity and cardiovascular problems.

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  Compare the summary to the original article to make sure
you have included all the important points.

 Double check to make sure you has paraphrased the

material accurately.

 Proofread for complete sentences, correct grammar,

punctuation, and spelling.

How to Condense a Summary

 Omit examples

 Omit restatements

 Create lists to combine key points from multiple sentences or

paragraphs

BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE
Letters
A letter is a document written down with an aim of passing information between
individuals or organizations.
REASONS FOR USING LETTERS
 They provide a convenient and cheaper means of communication without
personal contact.
 Provide evidence for the transactions carried out
 Provides records for future reference
 Provide opportunities to express goodwill by creating in the mind of the
receiver a favorable impressing of the organization.
 Can be used to send mass mails

ELEMENTS OF A FORMAL LETER

Letter head
Found at the top of the letter and may contain the following information;
Full company name
 The address
 Telephone number
 Physical location
 Email address

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  Company logo
Address of the sender
It may contain the name and the address of the person which the letter is
originating from.
Date
I it always better to include the correct date for ease of reference
Should always be written in the long format
Recipients address
The address of the person where the letter is going to
If the recipient falls any little, the abbreviation should be added after the name in
descending order e.g. Bishop, Dr. Hon
Salutation
Dear Sir/Madam
It is used to refer to a person who may not be known
Dear Sirs/Madams
It is used to refer to a group of people who may not be known
Dear Mr/Mrs Smith
Used to refer to someone known by name
Reference
It contains the main subject that the letter is trying to address
References must always be descriptive of the main information contained in the
letter.
Body
This is where the main issues are addressed. It may range fro one paragraph to
three paragraphs. Care must be taken when summarizing he information and
relevant details should not be excluded.
Subscription
Normally determined by the opening salutation. If the recipient is addressed by
name, the correct subscription is your sincerely. Yours faithfully is normally used
when the recipient is addressed using Dear Sir/Madam,
The three main items that may appear in subscription
Signature
Name
Job title.
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 QUALITIES OF AN OFFICIAL LETTER
 Express the letter in a clear and simple language
 No spelling, grammar and punctuation errors may be allowed
 The tone of the letter must be official
 All facts and figure must be accurate and clear
 The letter should be free form irrelevant information
 The letter should be brief without sacrificing completeness
 The letter should be considerate and word like “I ” should be avoided at all
cost.

MEMORANDUM ( MEMO)
This is the main method of internal communication. A memo is a brief document
used for routine day to day exchange of information within an organization.
Memos are often used to:
i) Communicate the same material to many people
ii) Communicate policies and procedures.
iii) Confirm oral decisions.
iv) Place specific information on records
v) To designate responsibility.
A memo should be formatted to emphasize the need of the readers who may not
have time to go thorough the details
A good memo should discuss one topic only
Memos are constructed openly and delivered informally making them to be less
private whom compared to letters.
MEMO FORMAT
From : THE DIRECTOR
To : ALL STAFF
Subject: RETRENCHEMENT
Date: 07th October 2008
Due to un expected transfer of students, we are unable to maintain the current
work force, and therefore we consider retrenching some staff.

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Dr. Winny
Director of Programmes

QUESTIONNARIES
It is a document containing a number of questions that can be send to many
individuals.
Questionnaires are normally used whenever it is desirable to involve input from a
large number of people e.g. when carrying out a research.
A typical questionnaire must start with the heading which includes a title. It is
then followed by a brief statement of purpose, the name and the telephone
number of the contacted person, dateline for completion and where to return the
form.
The heading is followed by general instructions providing guidance and
answering the questions.
QUESTIONNAIRE GUIDELIENS
 Ensure that he questions are formulated to carry the right information
 Keep the questions brief and user friendly
 Provide clear instructions that will answer alt he anticipated questions.
 Arrange the questions in a logical order starting from the easiest to the
hardest
 Allow anonymous responses because they provide better information.
 Phrase the questions to avoid misunderstanding by using the simplest
terms possible
 Try not to lead the response by use of questions that gives clues to the
expected answers.
 Limit the use of open ended questions that would be difficult to tabulate
 Questions should require short answers where possible
 Limit the use of questions that can raise negative concerns
 Include a section at the end of questionnaire for general comments
 Test the questionnaire whenever possible before finalizing it.
 The respondent should be tanked for the cooperation and should be
assured that he information given is strictly confidential.

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CURRICULUM VITAE (CV)
This is a document that brief and precisely summarized the personal academic,
professional and working details among other details of the author of the
document.
There are no sets standards for writing a CV. but however a typical CV may
include the following
 Title
 Personal details
 Career objective
 Academic qualifications
 Experience
 Achievements /award
 Hobbies / interests
 Referees

MEETING(S)
Definition
A meeting is an assembly of persons gathering with accordance to legally
defined rules and procedures to discuss an agenda.
A committee is a small group of people usually selected or elected by a group of
people to meet and conduct an agreement business on behalf of the people.

TYPES OF MEETINGS
Managerial meetings
This is a gathering of people within an organization with a clearly defined inter-
personal relationships meeting to exchange view and attitudes on information
with an aim of making decisions and constituting actions.
Normally occur between individuals of the some level to exchange opinions,
gives advices or exchange / share information.
Advisory meeting
An assembly of people meeting to formulate advice, suggestions so proposals for
submission to a higher executive body for ratification purposes
Statutory meetings
Involves coming together of at least two or more people with an aim of discussing
legal issues.

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Executive meetings
An assembly of people normally made up of the highest members of the
organization whose purpose is to arrive at a decision and institute some actions.
Briefing meeting
An assembly of people reporting the progress of some activities that could be
going on. Normally sermoning to receive, accept and comply with the
requirements formulated. This group of people retains information for use relative
to them by a person in authority over them.
Task force meeting
An assembly of people drawn from various levels and sectors of an organization
brought together to find a solution to a problem by working outside the normal
administrative structure.
Brain storming meting
It is an informal meeting of people whose aim is to generate ideas, suggestions
or approaches to organizational activities from a non restricted interchange of
views, opinions and ideas.
Adhoc meeting
Is a group of people meeting for a specific purpose and once the purpose is
accomplished the committee is disbanded.
Standing committee meeting
Is a permanent committee meeting, members may change but he committee
remains

PURPOSE OF HOLDING MEETINGS

 To collect and obtain information form a group
 To bring together knowledge and experiences that may aid in solving a
problem
 To influence attitude and develop cooperation
 To air agreements
 To tell a group about a decision or some action already taken
 To collect facts and opinions form a group of people before reaching a
conscious
 To generate ideas
 TO make decisions
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TERMINOLOGIES USED IN MEETINGS
Agenda
These are the topics to be discussed during the meeting
Minutes
A record of all the activities taking place in a meeting
Quorum
Minimum number of people that must be present in order for a meeting to take
place as outlined in the constitution
Constitution
Rules and regulations that are legally binding and must be followed by a group
In attendance- any guest who is not a member of the group who may be invited
to discuss about an issue

Ad hoc: from Latin, meaning 'for the purpose of', as for example, when a sub-
committee is set up specially to organize a works outing.

Adjourn: to hold a meeting over until a later date.

Adopt minutes: minutes are 'adopted' when accepted by members and signed
up by the chairman.

Advisory: providing advice or suggestion, not taking action

AGM: Annual General Meeting: all members are usually eligible to attend

Apologies: excuses given in advance for inability to attend a meeting

Articles of Association: rules required by Company law which govern a

company's activities

Attendance list: in some committees a list is passed round to be signed as a

record of attendance

Bye-laws: rules regulating an organization’s activities

Casting vote: by convention, some committee chairmen may use a 'casting vote'
to reach a decision, if votes are equally divided

Chairman: leader or person given authority to conduct a meeting

Chairman's Agenda: based upon the committee agenda, but containing

explanatory notes

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Collective Responsibility: a convention by which all committee members agree
to abide by a majority decision

Committee: a group of people usually elected or appointed who meet to conduct

agreed business and report to a senior body

Consensus: agreement by general consent, no formal vote being taken

Convene: to call a meeting

Decision: resolution minutes are sometimes called 'decision minutes'

Eject: remove someone (by force if necessary) from a meeting

Executive: having the power to act upon taken decisions

Extraordinary Meeting: a meeting called for all members to discuss a serious

issue affecting all is called an Extraordinary General Meeting; otherwise a non-
routine meeting called for a specific purpose

Ex officio: given powers or rights by reason of office

Guillotine: cut short a debate – usually in Parliament

Honorary post: a duty performed without payment, e.g. Honorary Secretary

Information, Point of: the drawing of attention in a meeting to a relevant item of

fact

Intra vires: within the power of the committee or meeting to discuss, carry out

Lie on the table: leave item to be considered instead at the next meeting (see
table)

Lobbying: a practice of seeking members' support before a meeting

Motion: the name given to a 'proposal' when it is being discussed at a meeting

Mover: one who speaks on behalf of a motion

Nem con: from Latin, literally, 'no one speaking against'

Opposer: one who speaks against a motion

Order, point of: the drawing of attention to a breach of rules or procedures

Other business: either items left over from a previous meeting, or items
discussed after the main business of a meeting

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Point of order: proceedings may be interrupted on a 'point of order' if
procedures or rules are not being kept to in a meeting

Proposal: the name given to a submitted item for discussion (usually written)
before a meeting takes place

Proxy: literally 'on behalf of another person' - proxy vote

Refer back: to pass an item back for further consideration

Resolution: the name given to a 'motion' which has been passed or carried;
used after the decision has been reached

Seconder: one who supports the 'proposer' of a motion or proposal by

'seconding' it

Secretary: committee official responsible for the internal and external

administration of a committee

Secret ballot: a system of voting in secret

Shelve: to drop a motion which has no support

Sine die: from Latin, literally, 'without a day', that is to say indefinitely, e.g.
'adjourned sine die'.

Standing Committee: a committee which has an indefinite term of office

Standing Orders: rules of procedure governing public sector meetings

Table: to introduce a paper or schedule for noting

Taken as read: to save time, it is assumed the members have already read the
minutes

Treasurer: committee official responsible for its financial records and

transactions

Ultra vires: beyond the authority of the meeting to consider

Unanimous: all being in favour

PREPARATION FOR A MEETING

The following factors should be considered before holding any meetings;
 Rules and regulations
 Venue
 Agenda
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  Recording of minutes
 Time management
 Follow-up

PROCEDURE OF HOLDING
Role of the chairperson.
Before the meeting
 Establish and understand the items of business to be discussed
 Drafting the agenda
 Ensure members are notified about time, place purpose of the meeting
and issue the agenda if possible
During the meeting
 Ensue that meeting starts on time
 Introduce the topics very clearly
 Obtain valid contributions
 Maintain law and order
 Obtain decisions effectively.
After the meeting
 Verity a draft copy of the minutes prepared by the secretary
 Monitor the progress of he activities to be performed.

ROLE OF THE SECRETARY

Before the meeting
 Obtain the materials of the previous meeting
 Draft the agenda to logical order of priorities
 Circulate the notice of the meting and agenda
During the meeting
 Attend before time
 Get the room ready for the meeting
 Ensure that all the necessary documents are available
 Write down the proceedings (minutes)
 Assist the chairperson
After the meeting
 Produce a final copy of the minutes
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  Distribute to members copies of the minutes
 Issue instructions arising from the minutes and monitor if necessary

ROLE OF THE MEMBERS

Before the meeting
 Notify the secretary or chairperson on the items of the agenda.
During the meeting
 Make meaningful contribution
 Take note of all the decision made and the respective actins to be taken
After the meeting
 Read and verify the minutes
 Carryout any action required if necessary

Advantage of meetings
 Meetings shares he benefits of face to face communication including
immediate feedback
 It has the potential of group synergy (winning combination)The combined
effort in a group often generates better solutions when compared to an
individual working alone or communication through letters email
 It can stimulate creativity
 It can increase motivation

Disadvantages of meetings
 Meetings often loose direction leading to non related topics. Badly ran
meeting may generate bad decisions.
 Messages criss cross around the meeting room and highly vulnerable to
noise and misinterpretation
 A lot of time is wasted since members may be having different opinions,
ideas and feelings
 Discussions and arguments may become highly personalized.

INTERVIEWS
Definition
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 An interview is a face to face encounter which employs oral communication.
A telephone conversation may be used to facilitate an interview
Questions in all interviews may be oral or written.

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
Employment interviews
Take place regularly at different organization
The main objective is to make a decision on whether a potential employee is
qualified for the job. Such interviews are facilitated and eventually the best
candidate is employed.
Disciplinary interviews
They are carried out by a senior employee when a junior employee has been
accused of breaking the organizations rules and regulations.
The main priority is to establish the truth.
The interview must be conducted basing on the facts to avoid being biased
against the employee.
The interviewing should always remain calm and objective. This should not
result in personal abuse.

Instructional interview
They are normally used to issue instructions about new procedure to individuals
within an organization.
The procedure concern is demonstrated and shown very clearly.
Questions may be asked to test employees understanding and procedure.
Grievance interview.
Normally takes place when an employee feels that he or she has been
mistreated in an organization.
They should always be conducted on the basic of the actual knowledge.
The objective is to arrive at an conclusion so that appropriate action may be
taken
Decision making interview
Usually small meetings between employees of the same status.
The views of all the present are expressed and considered in detail before a
decision is reached.
Promotional interview
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Takes place when an employee has applied for a job of a higher level within an
organization. They are conducted in a manner to employment interviews
Aim is to disserve whether the applicant is eligible for promotion.

PREPARATION FOR AN INTERVIEW

Study the original advert and the letter informing you about selection by
extracting carefully all the necessary information.
Think about all the possible questions that you may be asked so that he answer
may be prepared in advance.
Obtain as much background information about the organization before the
interview. This demonstrates an interest on the organization.
Be prepared to talk fully about yourself example your past and future ambitions.
Be smart for the interviews to have a positive first impression.
Be confident about yourself. If you are successfully short listed for an interview,
then you are a possible candidate for the position.
Conducting interviews
The following should be observed during an interview session
The interview commences / starts as soon as you enter the interview room enter
with confidence. Wait until you are given a hand to shake or be invited to sit
down.
Assume a posture that is both comfortable and alert. Listen before you speak
and anticipate where the questions are leading to.
Maintain an eye contact because it is a sign of honesty and assurance. Facial
express in, gesture and posture provides a reliable insight about the interviewee.
This is facilitated by paying attention.
Use a clear loud voice but don’t shout. The words you say and the way you
express yourself may reveal much about your intelligence, judgment and
common sense.
Observe the reaction of the interviewer by checking whether the interviewer is
satisfied with the answers.
Make an effort to ask question where possible.

WHAT TO AVOID IN AN INTERVIEW

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 i. Avoid unclear voice. Aloud voice may make an interviewer feels
threatened while a low voice may be monotonous.
ii. Avoid nervousness. Being nervous can make an individual to be less
responsible.
iii. Avoid the use of “Yes” and “No” when answering questions expand
your answers where possible.
iv. Avoid un-natural posture
v. Avoid making remarks that may create negative impression for the
rest of the interviews.

PURPOSE OF AN INTERVIEW
The main purpose of the interview could be any of the following:
 A meeting to match your needs with the wants of an employer.
 The final stage in the recruitment process for a new job.
 A chance to sell yourself; skills, experiences, strengths and so on..
 A chance to see the reality of the company - is it for you?
 A spotlight to be interrogated under or a stage to show your abilities?
 An opportunity to make them realize how they need you in their
organization.
 A chance to show who you are.

CHALLENGES OF AN INTERVIEW

1. Difficult Interviewers
Interviewers come in all shapes and sizes and have many different personalities.
It is important to remember no matter how tough the interviewer is you must
remember why you are there and match up your skills and background with the
open position. You will need to change tactics depending on the type of
interviewer you get. Difficult interviewers generally fall in to the following
categories.
Talks too much
A disorganized interviewer probably has no idea on how to stop talking. They go
on and on an on. In some way you can use this to your advantage however you
still need to get across the message of your suitability for the position.

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This can be conveyed by choosing your moments carefully when you in to the
conversation without obviously cutting off the interviewer. A chatterbox likes
nothing less than being cut off in mid sentence. Ask specific questions to show
the interviewer how your background matches his needs.
Disorganized Interview
A disorganized interviewer probably has no idea on how to conduct an interview
and probably bases his hiring decision on very little that is relevant to the open
position. It is entirely possible to take advantage of this situation and take the
lead on the interview. Keep talking about your strengths and ability and how well
they match the requirements of the open position.
Serious, Unemotional Interviewer
It can be very difficult to get a read on a serious or unemotional interviewer as
you do not get a reaction when your respond to a question or ask a question. It is
best to tone down your overall tone with this type of interviewer and don't be put
of by the lack of response. Present your case, your strengths and ability to do the
job and give less attention to the outward response of the interviewer.
Game Players
There are also interviewers who like to play games to see how you react. These
games include..
Placing the chair you are to sit in direct sunlight. It is appropriate to tell the
interviewer you are moving the chair due to the sunlight in your face.
Placing you in a chair that is either very uncomfortable or too comfortable. You
can ask to move. They may be trying to see how assertive you are.
Challenging your answers to see what kind of reaction they get. Keep calm and
stick to your answers.
2. Interviews with more than one interviewer
Interviews where there is more than one interviewer can be very challenging.
You have to direct your responses to a group of people. The insight you gain
from this is that the company places high value on teamwork. You may however
get mixed messages on what the desired background for the position is from the
questions the different interviewers ask. This can tell you they are not all in sync
which can be very challenging to deal with. The following are some tips you can
keep in mind should you find yourself faced with more than one interviewer.

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Don't avoid or ignore anybody. Remember just because someone is quiet does
not mean they do not make decisions. Try to get a feel for who is the key
decision maker.
Respond to each interviewer. Don't look on the interviewers as one group (which
they are!) but as individuals with different needs so respond to the person asking
the questions however making eye contact with the other interviews at the same
time. Don't break down if you did not know beforehand there would be more than
one interviewer. Stick to your guns. Your objective remains the same.
Always ask for clarification for questions that need it and don't hurry with your
answers.
3. Interviews over a meal
some interviews may take place over lunch or dinner or even coffee. Don't be
misguided and think that you can be more relaxed. This is still an interview and
you need to be on your best behavior and you also nee dot use your best table
manners. Order a meal that is easy to eat and not messy and do not order the
most expensive item on the menu.
4. Improper Questions
There are questions an interviewer should never ask and are not permitted by
federal law to ask. So what are these questions or subject that should be off
limits to interviewers. They include …
Religion
Age
Sexuality
Ethnicity
Race

REPORTS
Definition
A report is written document providing an account of an idea or activity which has
been examined and witnessed
It is an investigating together with recommendation used to convey information
that provides a basis for decision making.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE REPORT
 An effective report must be:
 Appropriate to its audience and purpose
 Accurate
 Logical
 Clear and conscience
 Well organized with clear headings.

TYPE OF REPORTS
 Simple reports eg accident reports, disciplinary reports
 Routine reports eg sales, medical, progress
 Special commission reports eg investigation, market research personnel

STRUCTURE OF A REPORT
Title
A report must have a title
The title should describe the information contained in the report
Aims and objectives
This is a statement of the writer’s purpose in producing the report
Summary and procedures
This is a very short and precise summary of the entire report
It provides the reader with a general idea of the content of the report
It may also contain a brief description of the means by which the findings were
obtained.
Findings
It is the main body / discussion f the report
It may have several parts including the research carried out, methods of data
collection, advantages and disadvantages, observations and other findings.
Conclusions and recommendations
A report must always lead to a conclusion-This might be a statement of facts of
which the report has made
It can also include personal opinions form the facilitator.
Reference

26
It contains supportive information where an individual may be able to obtain
additional resources covered in the report.
Technical terms may also be explained at this point.

PROCEDURE FOR REPORT WRITING

The following is a suggestion as to how you might proceed in compiling and
presenting the report
Planning.
 Define the purpose
 Define the audience
 Establish parameters ( scope)
 Collect the information
Writing; It follows 3 stages in the following orders
 Body / findings
 Summary
 Supplementary materials
Formatting
It’s also known as revising or proof reading. During this stage the following the
following checklist may be used:
a. Is purpose of the report fulfilled:
b. Is it written at a level appropriate to the audience?
c. Are all the facts correct
d. Is it comprehensive
e. Is all the included information relevant
f. Is the layout and the presentation well organized
g. Is the style clear, concise and professional
h. Does it give an abstract summary?
i. Does the good adequately introduced the discussion
j. Is the discussion organized logically
k. Does the conclusion section interpret, analyze, and evaluate he report
l. Are the recommendations reasonable
m. Does the table of contents correspond to the actual contents
n. Are all the sources of information correct and acknowledge
o. Are spellings, grammar and punctuations checked
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 p. Is the final draft carefully proof read

ORAL/VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Definition:
It involves speaking and listening
Speaking entails the use of word of mouth to communicate while listening
involves hearing what other people have to say.
The following are some of the examples where oral communication may be
applicable.

28
  Unplanned exchanged  Panel discussions
 Planned informal talk  Teachings
 Meeting  Coaching
 Interview  Interrogations
 Telephone call  Press conference
 Story telling  Sales presentations
 Presentations  Debates
 Group discussions  Critiques
 Speeches

IMPORTANCE OF ORAL COMMUNICATION (ADVANTAGES)

 There is always immediate feedback
 It is fast
 It is cheap
 Secure to confidential information
 It reduces the chance of misinterpretation
 Persuasion can be easily done
 It can involve a large group of people

BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE ORAL COMMUNICATION

Communicating at the wrong time
It is always important to know when to communicate just like choosing the right
media.
Language barrier
It is about using the language which may not be understood by the receiver. It an
occur when one uses a different language or using repetitive phrases e.g. oK,
you know, ooh
Motivational barriers

29
People may need to understand how they will benefit from the information
passed across. Un understanding of motivation and persuasion is essential to
those preparing for business communications.
Perception
This is an individual’s interpretation of the sensory environment. There is a
difference in the way people view thing sand this may bar effective
communication.

NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION (NVC)

Definition
This involves the use of communication without using spoken words.

TYPES OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Body language
Facial expression Gestural expression
Walking style Yarning
Dressing code Staggering
Hand shake Laughing

Written language
Notice
Memo
CVs
Posters
Advert
Magazines
Reports
Letter

30
Sign language
It is a specialized language used by the deaf people to communicate eg Kenyan
Sign language.

IMPORTANCE OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION

a. It saves time
b. It simplifies spoken words
c. It provides a direct feedback
d. It is not affected by noise
e. It is more believable
f. Reinforces a messages
g. May be kept for future reference
h. Can be used to communicate confidential information
i. May be used for analysis
j. Large volumes of data can be communicated
k. Can be used to send messages over along distance.
l. It is more accurate because of minimal misinterpretation
m. It can be used to confirm, interpret clarity oral communication.

BARRIERS OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Organizational barriers
It occurs when the communication structure within an organization ( or ) fail to
allow communication to take place accurately eg a junior employee may not be
allowed to talk directly to the manager.
Human relation barriers
It is always advisable to put personal feelings to the back of your mind while
working in a business environment. However in some occupations human
relation problems may be beyond control. In this situation individuals may be
unable to work together in harmony and this may affect he mode of
communication.

Poorly defined aim

There must be a clear idea of what the communication is supposed to achieve
before encoding your message. Similarly the information forming the basis of
your message must be clear and accurate. If the two are not clear the message
may be inaccurate and may result in communication breakdowns.
Distortion
This is the name given to barriers which may arise at he encoding and decoding
stages. If the sender was danguige or some signs which don ’t convey the
intended message to the receiver distortion is likely to happen.

AUDIO VISUAL COMMUNICATION

Definitions
Audio communication
Involves communicating by use of spoken words e.g. making a phone call.
Visual communication
It involves passing information through what is seen e.g. diagrams, maps, charts,
pictures etc
Audio visual communication
Comprises of both audio and visual forms of communication e.g. TV, Video,
internet chatting, cinemas, movies, video conference, cartoons, DVDs, theater
shows etc.
EXAMPLES OF AUDIO COMMUNICATION
Telephone call
Radio
Conversations
Radio calls
BARRIERS OF AUDIO COMMUNICATION
Physical barriers
Those are common destructions that may annoy the process of communication
by reducing the receiver’s concentration and attention.

Wrong medium
Choosing the wrong medium during communication can be disastrous compared
to conveying inaccurate information. Such misunderstandings can be avoided by
careful selection of the media.
Information overload
When listening, the listeners may be tired at some point and may not be able to
concentrate through out the exercise. It is always advisable for the speaker to
find out when the listener are tired. This may mean that he information passed
may be terminated prematurely.
Pre-judgment
When decoding information it is not always advisable to jump to the conclusions.
Instead focus on the message and not the messenger.
Carefully identify the information that is relevant to your needs.
Destructions
When listening the speaker may influence the attitude of the either. In this case
do not be destructed by the speaker’s way of listening, talking and vocabulary
skills instead use your own reading and speaking skills

OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS OF AUDIO COMMUNICATION

 Focus on the objectives e.g. the purpose of the message and what the
desired to accomplish
 Understand the other party
 Be organized
 Make intelligent use of grapevine communication.
 Determined an individuals perception or communication climates
 Understand the roles and the functions of others.
VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS
e.g. pictures, drawings, maps, charts, banners, billboards, chalkboards, marker
boards, flip charts , electronic screens, projectors.

BARRIERS OF EFFECTIVE VISUAL COMMUNICATION

1. Failure to analyze the receiver and his or her needs.
2. The amount of information that the source may be having pertaining to the
subject of study.
3. Too much knowledge about he subject e.g. the source may over explain
the message making it to be too detail, complex and confusing.
4. Failure to decide about how to present the information e.g. what should be
included and the manner of presentation.
OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION
1. Carry out al audit of communication activities
2. Apply all the visibility skills whenever you are making observations.
3. Seek feedback where necessary eg ask questions, be descriptive instead
of being evaluative.
4. Keep the channels of communication open by keeping an open mind.

BARRIERS OF AUDIO – VISUAL COMMUNICATION

i. Lack of experience e.g. when making a presentation
ii. Poor listening skills or receivers failure to pay attention.
iii. Receives failure to understand the message
iv. Cultural barriers e.g. trying to communicate to a person from a
different culture
v. Body language e.g. repeated actions which may be annoying.

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPEMNT IN COMMUNICATION

Definition.
Technology is an inclusive term including any communication devise on
application. It may consist of radio, TV, mobile phones, computers, satellite
systems etc.

i) Voice over internet protocol (VOIP)

These are rules and regulations used for transmission of voice through the
internet.
Voice over internet protocol is often used as an abstract term referring to the
actual transmission of voice through the telephone lines connected to a computer
ii) Teleconferencing
The basic meaning is to hold a conference through a telephone network
communication
Once a teleconference is established the group can share applications and make
some common conclusions.
There are several teleconferencing application that can be used over the network
eg Microsoft net meeting.
iii) Electronic mail
It is an improvised version of a telephone exchange which uses a telephone line
to convey a message which appears on the screen of the receivers compute
terminal. The sender types the message which is entered in the memory of the
receivers’ computer. It may then be displayed on the screen of he receiver so as
printed copy may be produced if the receiver comp is connected to a printer.
iv) FAX
This is an abbreviation of facsimile (copy)
Fax machines operate like two photocopier joined by a telephone line. The
message to be communicated is placed on a sender ’s machine. It may then be
transmitted to the receivers’ machine where a copy is produced.
Using this method, confidential information and detailed designs maybe send
over along distance safety and rapidly.
V) INTERNET
This is a term referring to a collection of interconnected network. On the other
hand, a network is a group of computers connected together so that they can
share information and other useful resources.

USES OF INTERNET
Telnet (Telecomm unity)
This involves carrying out job operations while at home premises
For the operation to take place the following may be required
Computer both at home and workplace
Internet connection and
Management software

FILE SHARING
Involves dynamic exchange of files from one compute to another. The operating
is mostly effective in presence of internet connections.
News groups
A collection of individuals who may subscribe in order to be given regular
updates pertaining to some kinds of information.
Web browsing
Mainly involves general web accessibly moving form one website to another in
order to obtain general information
Searching
This is looking for particular information on internet. To carry out this operation
powerful search engines maybe involved where one may type the search
question in order to obtain some response eg using Google search
Electronic commerce
Involves buying and selling through the internet.
To carry out the operation the products, services and ideas that are being sold
most be displayed in a certain website where potential consumers maybe able to
visit. Upon request of such product, the payment may be submitted by use of
electronic money transfer systems.
Entertainment
A great deal of entertainment can be achieved from the internet eg listening to
music, watching movies playing game etc.
Downloading / uploading
While assessing information on the internet a user may decide to transfer a file
located in the internet to the users’ computer. This is called downloading.
Uploading is where the user may transfer a file from the users ’ computer to the
internet.
Others are e.g.
 Globalization
 Sending and receiving mails
 Socialization
 E-learning
 Research
 E-marketing
 Job search

IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY IN COMMUNICATION

Positive
 Machine are known to work better in comparison to human begins.
 Superior services have been guaranteed e.g. use of ATM Machine.
 It has led to foundation of knowledge e.g. through extensive research.
 Technology controls the Ruth e.g. paternal DAN test
  Improved communication speed e.g. use of mobile phones
 Technology may be used to indicate uncertain variables e.g. weather
forecast
NEGATIVE IMPATS
 Technology related equipments are very expensive to buy and maintain
 It has led to arise in fraudulence and other related crimes
 Unwanted distribution of private information
 Exposure to inappropriate materials
 Child abuse
 Poor performance in schools
 Unemployment
 Marriage breakups

EMERGING TRENDS IN COMMUNICATION

Computers
Powerful computers are being manufactured with high processing speeds and
large memory capacity. This enables communication to take place effectively and
efficiently, by use of various internet applications.
Mobile phones
They are used for communication over short and long distances.
They may also have additional features which can be used to obtain other
functionalities e.g. internet aces, games, camera, voice and video recorder, intra
red, blue tooth.

Wireless networks
By use of technology different equipment scan be able to share information
without direct physical connection e.g. making a call through boosters, internet
access without cables, security alarms without connections etc
Robotics
With advanced technology equipments are now crated which can act like human
beings e.g. reason talk, small and respond to external stimulants.
Graphic design
It is possible to represent images in 3 dimensions. These images can be able to
act like the ones in the real environment.
With the technology virtual reality is able to be made by use of complex graphic
design tools.
Internet
By use of internet, individuals can be able to perform duties and communicate
whenever and wherever they need to do so.

Crime
Since technology is being facilitated by human beings the same technology can
be sued to bring about serious criminal operations eg stealing money by use of
different technology based application.
Security
Technology has improved security operations by coming up with features that
can be used to track criminals and also obtaining accurate information during
investigation.
Complex software
Technological equipments are driven by instructions.
These instructions has gone through several improvement in the current society
complex instructions can be able to solve problem which maybe beyond the
reasoning of human beings

REFERENCE
Berlo, D. K. (1960). The process of communication. New York, New York: Holt,
Rinehart, & Winston

Byrne, D. (1961). Interpersonal attraction and attitude similarity. Journal of

Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62, 713–715

Mehrabian, Albert (1971). Silent Messages (1st ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Debunking the 55%, 38%, 7% Rule, by Judith E. Pearson

Montana, Patrick J. & Charnov, Bruce H. 2008. Management. 4th ed. New York.
Barron's Educational Series, Inc. Pg 333.
Ober, S. (2006). Contemporary Business Communication. (6th Ed). Boston:
Houghton Mifflin. Prepared by Dr. Amal Malek, Assistant Professor, DETE.Fall
2007

Roy M. Berko, et al., Communicating. 11th ed. (Boston, MA: Pearson Education,
Inc., 2010) 9-12

Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of

communication. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press

Schramm, W. (1954). How communication works. In W. Schramm (Ed.), The

process and effects of communication (pp. 3-26). Urbana, Illinois: University of
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Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction.

Warwick, K, Gasson, M, Hutt, B, Goodhew, I, Kyberd, P, Schulzrinne, H and Wu,

X: "Thought Communication and Control: A First Step using Radiotelegraphy",
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Wrench, J. S., McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (2008). Human
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