English Grammar

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 + -s
Permanent situations.

PRESENT Routines.
- Don’t / doesn’t + verb
SIMPLE State general thoughts.

? Describe the plots of films and books.

Do/Does + S + V...?

Present moment.
+ Am / Is / Are + V -ing.
Suggest an action is temporary.

PRESENT - Am not / isn’t / aren’t + V - Now, at the moment, at present, just.

CONTINUOUS ing.
Changing or developing situations.

? Always or continually for criticise.

Am / Is / Are + S + V-ing?
Actions is begun but not finished.

+ - ed
Completed actions and event in the past.
PAST Sequence of actions.
- Didn’t + verb
SIMPLE Permanent or long – term situations.

? Repeated events.
Did + S + Verb?

+ Was / Were + V-ing. Activity beginning before a past action (past

simple) and continuing until or after it.
PAST
- Wasn’t / Weren’t + V-ing For two thing happening at the same time.
CONTINUOUS
Repeated events, with always.
? Was / Were + S + V-ing? For unfulfiled plans, with verbs: hope, plan...

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 With since, or for. About a period of time which
+ continues up to the present.
Have / Has + Past Participle
With questions “how long”.
In negative for unfinished actions and event.
PRESENT (still, yet).For events which happened in the
PERFECT - Haven’t / hasn’t + Past Participle past at a time which is irrelevant.
SIMPLE For events that happened in the recent past
(just).
When we talk about many times something has
? Have / has + S + Past Participle? happened up to now.
After a superlative.

+ Have / Has + been + V -ing To talk about how long something has been
PRESENT happening.
PERFECT - Haven’t / hasn’t + been + V -ing
CONTINUOUS To focus on the activity or event itself, whether
? Have / has + S + been + V -ing? it is complete or not is unimportant.

+ Had + Past Participle When we are already talking about the past
PAST and want to make clear that we are referring
PERFECT back to an even early time.
SIMPLE - Hadn’t + Past Participle
When one event happened before the other.
? Had + S + Past Participle?

+ Had + been + V -ing

To emphasise a continuous activity or how long
PAST it continued.
PERFECT - Hadn’t + been + V -ing
CONTINUOUS When we talk about how long something
happened up to a point in the past.
? Had + S + been + V -ing

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 + Used to + verb Would + Verb To talk about past hàbits when we are
emphasising that they are not longer
USED TO +
true.
VERB
- Didn’t use to + verb Wouldn’t + Verb Would desccribe actions.
WOULD +
VERB Used to describe actions and states.

Adverbs + used to...

? Did + S + use to + V? Would + S + V?

Be + used to + V-ing Get + used to + V-

+
/ noun ing/noun.
BE USED TO Be used to: means be accoustomed to.
+ ING/ NOUN Be not + used to + V- Get not + used to + V-
- Get used to: means gradually become
ing / noun ing / noun accustomed to.

GET USED Can be followed by -ing or

TO + ING noun/pronoun.
Be + S + used to + V Get + S + used to + V -
/NOUN ?
-ing/noun? ing/noun? Can be past, present or future.

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 + -s For timetables (planes, buses, leaving or arriving)
FUTURE
PRESENT - Don’t / doesn’t + verb For programmes
SIMPLE
? Do/Does + S + V...? For people if their plans are fixed by a timetable.

+ Am / Is / Are + V -ing.
FUTURE
Am not / isn’t / aren’t + V -
PRESENT - For plans which have already been arranged.
CONTINUOUS ing.
? Am / Is / Are + S + V-ing?

+ Will + Verb For decisions made at the moment of speaking.

Is uncertain. With probably, maybe, think, expect
- and hope.
WILL FUTURE Won’t + Verb
For situations that we predict.

? Will + S + Verb? For something in the future which doesn’t depend

on personal judgement.

Am / is / are going to +
+ For future actions which we have already decided
verb
about.
GOING TO -
Am not / isn’t / aren’t
going to + verb To predict something when we already see evidence
Am / is / are + S + going to + for our prediction.
?
verb?
Was/ Were + going to +
FUTURE IN +
verb To talk about something which was planned but
THE PAST Wasn’t / Weren’t + going to
- didn’t hapen.
WAS/WERE + verb
GOING TO Was / Were + S + going to + To show that we don’t mind changing our plans.
?
verb?
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 PRESENT A present tense for ations at the same time as the
TENSES In clauses referring to future time and other verb or following the other verb.
AFTER TIME beginning with WHEN, UNTIL, BEFORE,
AFTER, AS SOON AS... The present perfect for actions completed before
CONJUNCTIONS the other verb.

+ Will have + past participle.

FUTURE To say that an action will be completed before a
PERFECT - Won’t have + past
point of time in the future. It is usual to mention
SIMPLE participle
the point of time.
? Will + S + Have + Past
Participle?

+ Will have been + V -ing.

FUTURE To emphasise how long an action will have lasted
PERFECT at a point in the future. It is necessary to mention
CONTINUOUS - Won’t have been + V -ing. the point of time and the length of time.

? Will + S + Have been + V -

ing?

+ Am / is / are about to +
verb To talk about something which is going to happen
almost immediately and for which we are already
TO BE ABOUT prepared.
- Am not / isn’t / aren’t +
TO
about to + verb In informal Language, the negative means “do not
Am / is / are + S + About to intend to” do something.
?
+ Verb?

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 RULES AND OBLIGATION

To give orders, for written notices or for strong advices, including ourselves.
MUST
It is only used in present or future.

HAVE TO For habits and when the obligation does not come from the speaker.

MUSTN’T Don’t do it.

DON’T HAVE TO It’s not necessary to do it.

HAVE / HASN’T GOT Use it in the speech and informal writing instead of have to. Refers to a
TO particular action and when we refer to the past, we use had to.
When we are talking about the right thing to do. To talk about the past, we use
SHOULD
SHOULD HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE.

NECESSITY

NEED TO In past form is needed to.

ASKING FOR AND GIVING PERMISSION

Can I…? Is a simple request, expect the answer yes.

Could I…? It is more polite.

CAN, COULD, MAY
May I…? It is a more formal request, used for a strangers. Can be used in
written notices to say what is or is not allowed.

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 MAKING REQUESTS (TO ASK SOMEONE ELSE TO DO SOMETHING)

Can you…?
Informal conversations.
Will you…?
CAN, WILL, COULD,
Could you…?
WOULD More polite.
Would you…?
Would you mind + v-ing…? Very polite.

MAKING OFFERS

Can I help you to…?

Shall we clean…?

I can/could/ will lend you…

Why don’t I…?

Would you like to…?

MAKING SUGGESTIONS

Let’s + infinitive

Shall I/we + infinitive….?

Why don’t I/we/you + infinitive…?

How about + v-ing…?

What about + v-ing…?

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 RULES AND OBLIGATION

STRONGER LESS STRONGER

OUGHT TO
MUST HAD BETTER COULD
SHOULD

Order Advice Advice Suggestion

For the negative we normally use had better not or shouldn’t.

We don’t use mustn't or couldn’t when giving advice.

For the past: SHOULD HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE / OUGHT TO + PAST PARTICIPLE.

To talk about the right thing to do: MUST, SHOULD, OUGHT TO, HAD BETTER.

ABILITY

CAN To say that someone has the ability to do something.

BE ABLE TO To talk about an ability in a general way.

(PRESENT FORMS)
To talk about a situation which makes someone able to do something.
COULD
To talk about someone’s ability in the past.
BE ABLE TO
(PAST FORMS) To talk about a situation which made someone able to do something.

For ability and situations which makes someone able to do something. Can is
BE ABLE TO
only used in the present tense, could only in the past tense. IN ALL OTHER
(OTHER TENSES)
TENSES WE USE BE ABLE TO.
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 DEDUCTION: CERTAINTY AND POSSIBILITY.

TRUE NOT TRUE

CAN’T
CERTAINTY MUST + INFINITIVE + INFINITVE
COULDN’T
MAY
PRESENT MIGHT NOT
POSSIBILITY MIGHT + INFINITIVE + INFINITVE
MAY NOT
COULD
CAN’T HAVE
CERTAINTY MUST HAVE + PAST PART. + PAST PART.
COULDN’T HAVE
MIGHT HAVE
PAST MAY NOT HAVE
POSSIBILITY MAY HAVE + PAST PART. + PAST PART.
MIGHT NOT HAVE
COULD HAVE

EXPECTATIONS

SHOULD (NOT) + When we expect something will happen.

INFINITIVE When we discover that a situation is not as we expected.

SHOULD (NOT) + HAVE

When talk about a past situation.
+ PAST PARTICIPLE

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 THE PASSIVE

We use it when we don’t know who or what did something.

TO BE + PAST The action is more important than who did it.

PARTICIPLE It is obvious who or what did something.
Can use BY + SUBJECT to show who/what did the action if this information is important.

TO GET/ HAVE When we ask someone else to do something for us, we use the structure HAVE SOMETHING
SOMETHING DONE.
DONE In informal speech, we often use get instead of have.

It is said that…
It was believed that…

IT IS SAID We often use IT + PASSIVE + THAT when It was agreed that…

THAT we report what people in general say or
believe. It has been announced that….
It was thought that….
It’s reported that….

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 RELATIVE CLAUSES

Tell us some essential information.

Tell us some extra information.
May have WHO, THAT, WHICH as a subject or object.
May have WHO, WHICH as a subject or object.
We can omit the relative pronoun when it is the object.
We never omit the relative.
Are never separated from the rest of the sentences by
Must be separated by commas.
commas.

WHOSE, WHOM, WHEN, WHERE AND WHY IN RELATIVE CLAUSES.

Begin with whose (instead of her/his/their), when (for times) and

DEFINING AND NON-DEFINING
where (for places).
CLAUSES
Begin with whom (for people) as a object of the clause.

Begin with why after the words “THE REASON”

DEFINING CLAUSES
Often omit the words when and why, but not where.

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 PREPOSITIONS IN RELATIVE CLAUSES.

When there is a preposition attached to a relative pronoun: We usually put the preposition at the end
of the clause. In informal English, we can put it at the beginning followed by WHICH OR WHERE.

We cannot use us that after a preposition in a relative clause. We can use preposition + which instead
of where.

NUMBERS AND PRONOUNS + OF WHOM / OF WHICH

All
Each
Non – defining relative clauses can start
Some + of whom
with a number or pronoun + of whom / of A few
Most + of which.
which.
Neither
None

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 REPORTED SPEECH

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Present simple Past Simple

Present Continuous Past Continuous

Past Simple Past Perfect

Present Perfect Past Perfect

Past Perfect Past Perfect

Am / is / are going to Was / Were going to

Will Would

Can Could

Might Might

Must Had to

Used to
Could Should Might
Must Don’t change.
Would Mustn’t Ough to
(deduction)

If the reporting verb is in the present tense, we use the same tenses as the original speaker. If the reporting
verb is in the past, we sometimes use the same tenses as the original speaker if the situation is still true.
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 Say We mention the person spoken to. We can omit that.

Is used without to and followed by the person spoken to. We

Tell
VERBS FOR can omit that.
REPORTING Reminded me… Informed me…
Verbs without that
Persuaded me… Warned us…
Mentioned to… that…. Complained to… that…
Verbs with that
Pointed out that… Explained to…that…
VERBS FOR We usually report orders and
Advised us to… Promised to…
REPORTING WITH requests by using TELL / ASK +
Offered to help… Agreed to…
TO INFINITIVE OBJECT + TO INFINITIVE. We can use:

REPORTING We use the word order. Question words keep in the reported speech. Yes/No questions are
QUESTIONS reported with whether/if.

Direct Speech Reported Speech Direct Speech

Reported Speech

The day before/ the That day/ the same

Yesterday Today
previous day day.
REFERENCES TO The next day/ the The next week/the
TIME, PLACE, ETC. Tomorrow Next week
following day. following week.
Then/ right away /
Now Here There
immediately

That That/the.
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 CONDITIONALS

IF + PRESENT TENSE, + CONSEQUENCE USING PRESENT

ZERO CONDITIONAL
We use this to state general truths. If means the same as when.

IF + PRESENT TENSE, + CONSEQUENCE WILL.

We use this for a condition which we believe is possible.

FIRST CONDITIONAL
If doesn’t mean the same as when.

Sometime we use the imperative followed by and to express this kind of

condition. The imperative comes first.

IF + PAST TENSE, + CONSEQUENCE USING WOULD + VERB.

We use this for an imaginary condition.

SECOND CONDITIONAL
We often use were instead of was in the IF clause. It is more formal and is used to
give advice.

IF + PAST PERFECT, + CONSEQUENCE USING WOULD HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE

To talk about past events which cannot be changed. Condition is impossible and
THIRD CONDITIONAL
consequence is imaginary.

MIGHT / COULD can be used instead of WOULD.

We sometimes meet sentences which contain a mixture of second and third
MIXED CONDITIONALS
conditional because of their particular context.
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 CONJUCTIONS

UNLESS If NOT. Is used with the present tense to talk about a condition in the present or
future.
Shows that an action is taken to prepare for a possible event or situation.

IN CASE Present tense: a present actions prepares us for a future event.

Past simple: shows that you did something because another thing might happen
later.
PROVIDED/PROVIDING
THAT These expression are used with a present tense to talk about the future. They have
a similar meaning to IF:

AS/SO LONG AS
IF, UNLESS, IN CASE, PROVIDED THAT, PROVIDING THAT, AS LONG AS, SO LONG AS, WHEN, UNTIL, AFTER,
BEFORE, AS SOON AS… are followed by the present tense to talk about the future.
OTHERWISE/ OR ELSE Means “because If not”

IT’S TIME These expressions are followed by past simple with a present meaning.

When the subject of would rather is the same as the following verb, we use
WOULD RATHER (NOT)
infinitive without to.

+ Past simple: to express a wish about a present situation.

I WISH
+ Past Perfect: To express a wish or regret about the past. It’s like 3rd conditional.
IF ONLY
+ would: when we express a wish for something to happen now or in the future or
someone to do something.
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 QUESTIONS

We put the auxiliary verb before its subject.

Present simple: DO/DOES.

MAKING YES/NO
QUESTIONS Past simple: DID.
Negative questions
express surprise.
To be: Before subject.

Modals verbs: Before subject.

SHORT ANSWERS FOR

Using the same auxiliary or modal verb
YES/NO.

When we use WHAT, WHICH, WHO, to make questions about the subject of the
verb, we don’t change the word order.
MAKING QUESTIONS
WITH QUESTIONS In a subject question WHO is always followed by a singular verb.
WORDS
When we use WHAT, WHICH OR WHO, to make question about the object, we
change the word order.

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 QUESTION TAGS

With do/does/did for all verbs in present or past

simple,

To be: question tag in verb to be.

If the statement is positive, the tag is NEGATIVE. With the same auxiliary or modal as in the statement
for verbs in other sentences.
If the statement is negative, the tag is negative
The question tag for I AM is AREN’T.

The question tag for I’M NOT is AM I.

The question tag for LET’S is SHALL WE.

Uses: To check that what we have just said is true and to ask for information.

AGREEING WITH STATEMENTS

With the verb to be or with a modal: With an auxiliary verb

He was really angry So was I I went to Spain last year So did they.

I don’t want to have a

He can’t speak French Nor can we Neither do I.
fight about it

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 COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES

COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

ONE SYLLABE -er -est B / D/ G/ N/ P. DOUBLE THE LAST

LETTER
Drop -y and add -
TWO SYLLABE Drop -y and add -ier
iest More: Comparative + than....

THREE SYLLABES OR
More + adjective Most + adjective Less: negative so/as + comp + as
MORE.

Good Better Best Less + comp + than

IRREGULAR
Bad Worse Worst
ADJECTIVES Equal: S + as + adj + as
Far Farther Farthest

ADJECTIVE FORM

ADJECTIVES -ED
➪ Describe our feelings

ADJECTIVES -ING
➪ Describe the things which make us feel like this.

ADJECTIVE POSITION

In front of the woird they describe. Can follow verbs: be, get, become, look, seem, appear, sound, taste, smell
and feel. Nouns can be used as an adjective.
ORDER. Begin with adjectives which give an opinion or general impression.

A/ AN Size Age Shape Colour Origin Material Purpose Noun

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 ADVERBS

Some adjectives and adverbs have the same form or are formed adding -ly to an adjective.. If
FORM
cannot be made into a adverb, we have to use an adverbial phrase “in a + adv”

Hardly means almost no and is used with ever and any

✍ Lately means recently

The adverb of good is well, but well can be an adjective which means the opposite of ill.
More or Less to make
COMPARATIVES. Adverbs without -ly add -er or -est like the adjectives.
COMPARATIVE
AND The most or The least to make Use the same comparative structure
SUPERLATIVE SUPERLATIVES.
ADVERBS
Well – better – best Far – Further – Furthest
Badly – worse – worst Early – Earlier - Earliest

MODIFYING ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES

STRONGER WEAKER

Incredibly Extremely Really Very Rather Fairly Quite Slightly

ADVERB OF DEGREE + ADJECTIVE OR Perfect, impossible, excel·lent can be only strenthened with adverb like
ADVERB completly, absolutely, totally or entirely.
After the verb or after the object of the verb. We can use it at the beginning for emphasise.
Frequency adverbs are in the mid-position before a single word verb, but after to be.
ADVERB POSITION
Opinion adjectives goes in front position followed by comma.
If the verb has two or more parts, the frequency adverb goes after the first part.
ORDER How – Where – When
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 COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLES

COUNTABLE Can be singular or plural

News is uncountable.
Many nouns can be both
Cannot be plural. Take a singular verb and use but with different
UNCOUNTABLE expressions like piece of… meanings.

A(N), THE AND NO ARTICLE

MEANS INTRODUCES USE IT WITH

A person/thing we haven’t
identified before.
One of many.
A(N) Singular countable nouns
Anyone / anything like this. An unspecific person/thing.

A general type of person thing.

A person/thing we have mentioned

before.
The particular ones. Singular / plural
THE Someone/something that is unique. countable and
The only ones. uncountable nouns.
Someone/something that speaker
and listener already know about.

All of these. Things/people in general.

NO Plural countable and
The quantity is uncertain A general type of substance, uncountable nouns.
ARTICLE
or unimportant. quality, etc.
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 SPECIAL USES OF ARTICLE

We don’t use it with most

Oceans, seas and rivers,. Regions. Groups of buildings, that use the town
THE islands. Countries that include a word such
❕ name. Lakes, continents, most
as Republic… Deserts and mountains range. countries, states, cities,
towns and village,

JOBS We use A(N) when we talk about someone’s occupation.

PUBLICATIONS
THE for the most newspapers and many We don’t use it for most
AND
organisations in words or initials. ❕ magazines or companies.
ORGANISATIONS

ONLINE We say THE internet or THE web

DEFINITIIONS We use A(N) to give a definition of something.

We use A(N) with a singular noun.
EXCLAMATIONS
We use NO ARTICLE if the noun is uncountable or plural.

We travel BY TRAIN/BUS We play THE GUITAR

We have LUNCH/DINNER We play TENNIS

FIXED
We have A BIG DIINNER My mother is AT WORK
EXPRESSIONS
We listen TO THE RADIO My mother is AT THE OFFICE.

We watch television
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PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE

IN For someone or something inside a limited area, or inside a room, building or container.

For a point on a fixed line.

For a point on a surface.
ON
With floor or ceilings.
For public transport vehicles: buses, trains, plans. We use IN for cars and taxis.
When we think about a place in terms of its function or as a meeting place.
AT
For an event.
ACROSS

OVER
Are used if a thing is higher than another.
ABOVE Over is used when one thing covers another.
OVER Above is used when the two things are not directly on top of each others.
Above is used in documents.
UNDER Are used if one thing is lower than another.
Under is the opposite of over.
BELOW
Below is the opposite od above. Used in documents.
ALONG Along: something which follow a line.
THROUGH Through: Passing form one side to the other side of it.
BY
Next to
BESIDE
BETWEEN Between: We talk about two places, things, etc.
AMONG Among: To identify something as a part of a group.
BEYOND Beyond: Something that is further away from us than something else,
BEHIND Behind: Something that is partly or completely hidden by an object in front of it.
 PREPOSITIONS WHICH FOLLOWS VERBS AND ADJECTIVES

Approve of + noun / v –ing.

Enquire about + noun / v-ing.
VERB +
PREPOSITION Insist on + noun / v-ing.
Look forward + noun / v-ing.
Succeed in+ noun / v-ing.
Accuse someone of
VERB +
Congratulate someone on
OBJECT + Forgive someone for

PREPOSITION Prevent someone/something from

Suspect someone of
Agree with someone
Agree about something

VERB Ask for something

Ask about something
+
Laugh at/about
DIFFERENT Shout at/to
PREPOSITION
Think of/about
Point at/to
Throw at/to
TO BE Be angry about something / with something
Be good/ bad at something
+ ADJECTIVE
Be pleased about something / with something /someone
+ PREPOSITION Be rude/polite/(un)kind to someone.
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 PREPOSITIONS USED TO EXPRESS WHO, HOW AND WHY

With passive verbs, for the person or thing which does the action.
BY
By + ing to show how something is done.

WITH With + noun for a tool (or object used for a purpose)

For + ing or a noun to explain the purpose of a tool or other object

FOR
For + ing or a noun to explain the reason for something.

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 EXPRESSIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS

Ways of travelling
BY Ways of connecting people
Ways thing can happen

In love, in trouble, in debt, in charge (of).

In secret, in private, in public.
CONDITIONS AND In/out of control, in/out of sight, in/out of danger, in/out difficulties.
CIRCUMSTANCES In a burry, in a temper.
At peace, At war, at home, at work.
On holiday, on/off duty, on business.

On the way: between two point on a journey.

In the way: blocking a path between objects/people.

✍ On time: punctual.
In time: at or before the correct time.
At the end: the last thing to happen.
In the end: The final result.

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 THE TO INFINITIVE AND -ING

VERB + TO INFINITVE

Afford Agree Aim Appear Arrange Attempt

Choose Decide Demand Deserve Fail Hope
Learn Manage Neglect Offer Omit Plan
Prepare Pretend Refuse Seem Tend Threaten
Wait Wish

VERBS + TO THAT ALWAYS HAVE AN OBJECT BEFORE THE TO

Advise Allow Encourage Forbid Force Invite

Order Permit Presuade Remind Teach Tell
Advise, allow, encourage, forbid
Warn Can be followed by –ing when there is no object.
and permit
VERBS + TO THAT SOMETIMES HAVE AN OBJECT

Ask Beg Expect Help Intend Promise

Want Would like, would love, would prefer: are also followed by to.

VERB + INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO.

Modals verbs, had better and would rather.

Help can be followed by infinitive without to.

Make and let, always with a object, are followed by the infinitive without to.
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 VERB + ING.

Admit Avoid Can’t face Can’t help Can’t Stand Carry on

Consider Delay Deny Detest Dislike Enjoy
Fancy Feel like Finish Give up Imagine Involve
Keep on Mention (not) Mind Miss Postpone Practise
Put off Recommend Risk Resist Suggest

VERB + TO OR ING WITH A DIFFERENCE IN MEANING.

Begin Can’t bear Continue Hate Dislike Like

Love Prepare Propose Start
Like + to: is a good thing to do, but isn’t necessary
enjoy it.
Like, prefer, hate and love: to / -ing

Like + ing: enjoy.

VERB + -ING OR INFINITIVE WITHOUT TO WITH A DIFFERENCE IN MEANING.

Feel Hear Notice See Watch

ADJECTIVE + TO INFINITIVE

Afraid Cheap Dangerous Delighted Difficult

Easy Expensive Happy Hard Impossible
Interesting Nice Pleased Possible Safe
Sorry Surprised.

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 VERB + TO OR –ING WITH A DIFFERENCE IN MEANING.

TO: Remember an action you need to do.

REMEMBER
ING: Have a memory of a post action.
TO: Fail to remember something you need to do.
FORGET
ING: Lose the memory of something you did.
TO: I’m sorry to tell you
REGRET
ING: We wish we hadn’t.
TO: In order to have a rest
STOP
ING: finish doing it.
TO: They don’t intend to.
MEAN
ING: it involves.
TO: the next thing we did was to tell us.
GO ON
ING: They continued.
TO: attempt to do it quickly if you can.
TRY
ING: do it as experiment.

Highlighted
verbs can be
followed by
a that clause

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 PRONOUNS AND DETERMINERS

POSSESIVE ‘S ‘S is used with people, countries and animals, and with time expressions.
AND OF
OF is used with things.

ADJ My Your His Her Its Our Their

PRO Mine Yours His Her - Ours Theirs

POSSESIVE
ADJECTIVES Adjectives are used before a noun
AND PRONOUNS
Possesive pronouns take the place of a possesive adjective + noun, usually to avoid
repeating the noun.
We use a possesive rather tan THE with the parts of the body and clothes.

Myself Yourself Himself Herself Itself Ourselves themselves

Are used it to make it clear that we are talking about the subject.
For emphasis after wash, shave, and dress.
REFLEXIVE Expressions:
PRONOUNS AND By (your)self.
OWN
Enjoy (your)self.
Make (your)self at home.
On (your) own means alone.
Behave (your)self.
Help (your)self.
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EACH OTHER AND
El uno al otro.
ONE ANOTHER

To say that somebody/something exists, especially then we refer to

THERE + TO BE
somebody/something for the first time.

To refer a particular thing, action, situation or place already mentioned.

IT + VERB TO BE To introduce information about time, weather and distance.

To avoid using a phrase with –ing or to infinitive.

Is used in positive sentences

Some Used in questions, especially requests and offers when we expect the
answer yes.
SOMEONE,
ANYWHERE, Used in questions and negative sentences
EVERYBODY, ETC.
Any Used in positive sentences to show it doesn’t matter which
thing/people/place.

Words like someone, everybody, etc. are followed by a singular verb.

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 Can be used with the same meaning but:

Each is used for individuals things or people in a groups.

EACH AND EVERY
Every emphasises that all the people or things in a group are included.

Each can be followed by of + plural noun or pronoun.

Are used with plural an uncountable nouns.

NO can be used with a singular noun.

Whole is used instead of all before a singular noun.

ALL, MOST, SOME,
NO AND NONE Things/people in general Things/people in a particular group

All + noun All (of) + the/my/this… + noun

Most/some + noun Most/some of + the/my/this….+noun

No + noun None of + the/my/this… + noun.

We use it when we refer to two items.

Both is used with plural verbs.

BOTH, NEITHER AND
EITHER Both…. And ….. Este y este.

Neither… nor… Ni uno ni el otro

Either…. Or…. Uno o el otro.

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LINKING WORDS

EXPRESSING REASON ANS RESULT

Introduce the reason for an action or situation. They can go on the beginning or in the
BECAUSE, SO, middle.
SINCE,
Because can be used to begin the answer to a question with WHY.

SO, THEREFORE Introduces the result of an action or situation. SO goes in the middle of a sentence. Therefore
goes at the beginning.

EXPRESSING PURPOSE

IN ORDER TO +
INF. Are used to link an action and its purpose. SO always goes in the middle and is followed by a
clause, often with will, would, can or could.
SO THAT + In order to goes in the middle and at the beginning and is followed by the infinitive.
VERB
EXPLAINING CAUSE AND EFFECT

Mean as much as this. We use them before a that clause to talk about cause and effect.
We can use it for emphasis, often after because.
SO AND SUCH So is followed by: adjective or adverbs. The word many, much, and few, with or without noun.
Such is followed by a/an + adj + noun. A /an +noun. Expression a lot of + noun.
Very has a similar meaning for emphasis but is followed by a that clause.

Enough means sufficient, the right quantity.

ENOUGH Too means more than enough.
TOO Are followed by to + infinitive, for + something/someone.
Adverb/Adjective +ENOUGH + noun TOO +many/much +noun TOO +adjective/adverb
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IN SPITE OF
Are used to explain an unexpected event. Go at the beginning or n the middle of sentence.
DESPITE Are followed by –ing or noun, and often by the fact + S + V.

BUT These words contrast two events or ideas. But usually goes in the middle.
Though/Although can go in the middle or beginning.
ALTHOUGH
We can’t use Although/though/but in the same sentence.
THOUGH Though can go at the end.

EVEN THOUGH Even though makes a stronger contrast than although/though. It emphasises the speakers
surprise that two facts are both true.
EVEN IF We use even if when we are not certain about our facts.

-ING
Can be used to combine two sentences when both have the same subject. Replaces subject+
PAST verb.
PARTICIPLE
Replaces an active verb.
-ING FORM Links two things happening at about the same time.
Can begin first or second half of the sentence.

PAST
PARTCIIPLE Replaces a passive verb. Links two connected events or situations.

BEFORE/AFTER Show the order in which things happen. Are used to combine two sentences when we have the
+ -IN same subject. Can replace the subject+ verb of either sentence.

When + ing links two actions happening at the same time.

WHEN , WHILE,
SINCE + -ING While + ing links a longer action to an action which happens in the middle of it.
Since + ing links an ongoing situation or action to the event or action when it began.