HYDRAULICS DEPARTMENT

NAME: SAMSON, Mark Aris C. COURSE/YEAR: CE-3

SUBJECT/SECTION: CE140-0P/B2 STUDENT NO.: 200948005

GROUP NO.: 05 SEAT NO.: _________

ORIFICE AND FREE JET FLOW

TITLE

Date Performed: September 3, 2012

Date Submitted: September 10, 2012

GRADE

Submitted to:

Engr. John Paul Carreon

INSTRUCTOR
 HYDRAULICS DEPARTMENT

Name: SAMSON, Mark Aris C. Date Performed: September 3, 2012

Subject & Section: CE140-0P/B2 Date Submitted: September 10, 2012

EXPERIMENT NO. 6
ORIFICE AND FREE JET FLOW

OBJECTIVE:

To determine the coefficient of velocity of two small orifices.

EQUIPMENT:

Hydraulics Bench
Orifice and Jet Apparatus
Stopwatch
Scale
Head tank

Paper clamp backboard

Adjustable Needle
overflow pipe

Locknut
Screw

Flexible hose Thumb

to slump tank nut

Inlet pipe

Orifice plate Adjustable

Baffle with “O” ring feet
TECHNICAL DATA:

Diameter of small orifice 0.003 m

Diameter of large orifice 0.006 m
Surface area of Reservoir Ag=1.819x10-3 m2

PROCEDURE (EQUIPMENT SET-UP)

1. Position the reservoir across the channel on the top of the hydraulic bench
and level the reservoir by the adjustable feet using a spirit level on the
base. Remove the orifice plate by releasing the two knurled nuts and
check the orifice diameter, take care not to be lose the O-ring seal.
Replace the orifice and connect the reservoir inflow tube to the bench flow
connector.

2. Position the overflow connecting tube so that it will discharge into the
volumetric tank; make sure that this tube will not interfere with the
trajectory of the jet flowing from the orifice.

3. Turn the pump and open the bench valve gradually. As the water level
rises in the reservoir towards the top of the overflow tube, adjust the
bench valve to give a water level of 2 to 3 mm above the overflow level.
This will ensure a constant head and produce a steady flow through the
orifice.

EXERCISE 1
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF VELOCITY FROM THE
TRAJECTORY OF A JET

Column Units Nom. Type Description

Heading

Orifice m d Measured Orifice diameter. The diameter is

Diameter measured in mm. Convert to
metres for the calculation.

Head m h Measured Head in reservoir for which

trajectory data has been taken.
The head is entered in mm.
Convert to metres for the
calculation.
 Horizontal m x Measured Distance from the orifice of the
Distance measuring needle. The value is
entered in mm. Convert to
metres for the calculation.

Vertical m y Measured Distance the jet has fallen from the

Distance level of the orifice. The value is
entered in mm. Convert to
metres for the calculation.

(yh)0.5 m Calculated Allows the plotting of a straight line

relationship between coeffecient
of velocity Cv and the horizontal
distance for the jet. A
graph of x plotted against
√𝑦ℎ will have a slope of 2Cv

Slope S Calculated Slope of x vs √𝑦ℎfor each point.

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
Velocity Calculated Cv = 2
Coefficient
Cv

DERIVATION:

From the application of Bernoulli's Equation (conservation of mechanical

energy for a steady, incompressible, frictionless flow):

the ideal orifice outflow velocity at the jet vena contracts (narrowest diameter) is

Vi = √2𝑔ℎ

Where h is the height of fluid above the orifice.

The actual velocity is

V = Cv √2𝑔ℎ ……………....(1)

C v is the coefficient of velocity, which allows for the effects of viscosity

and, therefore Cv < 1
Cv can be determined from the trajectory of the jet using the following argument:

Neglecting the effect of air resistance, the horizontal component of the jet velocity
can be assumed to remain constant so that in time, t, the horizontal distance
travelled,

x = vt ……………....(2)

Because of the action of gravity, the fluid also acquires a downward vertical
(y-direction) component of velocity. Hence, after the same time, t, (ie. after
travelling a distance x) the jet will have a y displacement given by
𝑡2
y=g
2

which can be rearranged to give:

𝑦
t = √2 𝑔 ……………....(3)

Substitution for t from (3) into (2) and for v from (1) into (2) yields the result:
𝑥
Cv = 2 √𝑦ℎ

Hence, for steady flow conditions, ie. constant h, Cv can be determined from the
x, y co-ordinates of the jet. A graph of x plotted against √𝑦ℎ will have a slope of
2Cv

PROCEDURE: DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF VELOCITY FROM

THE TRAJECTORY OF A JET.

4. Position the overflow tube to give a high head. Note the value of the head.
The jet trajectory is obtained by using the needles mounted on the vertical
backboard to follow the profile of the jet. Release the'secuning screw for
each needle in turn and move the needle until its point is just immediately
above the jet and re-tighten the screw. Attach a sheet of paper to the
back-board between the needle and board and secure it in place with the
clamp provided so that its upper edge is horizontal. Mark the location of
the top of each needle on the paper. Note the horizontal distance from the
plane of the orifice (taken as x = 0) to the co-ordinate point marking the
position of the first needle. This first co-ordinate point should be close
enough to the orifice to treat it as having the value y = 0. Thus y
displacements are measured relative to this position. Estimate the likely
experimental errors in each of the quantities measured.
 5. Repeat this test for a low reservoir head.

6. Then repeat the above procedure for the second orifice.

Column Units Nom. Type Description

Heading

Orifice m d Measured Orifice diameter. The diameter is

Diameter measured in mm. Convert to
metres for the calculation.

Head m h Measured Head in reservoir for which

trajectory data has been taken.
The head is entered in mm.
Convert to metres for the
calculation.

Horizontal m x Measured Distance from the orifice of the

Distance measuring needle. The value
is entered in mm. Convert to
metres for the calculation.

Vertical m y Measured Distance the jet has fallen from the

Distance level of the orifice. The value
is entered in mm. Convert to
metres for the calculation.

(yh)0.5 m Calculated Allows the plotting of a straight

line relationship between
coeffecient of velocity Cv and
the horizontal distance for the
jet. A
g ra p h o f x p lo t t e d a g a in st
√𝑦ℎ will have a slope of 2Cv

Slope S Calculated Slope of x vs √𝑦ℎfor each point.

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
Velocity Calculated Cv = 2
Coefficient
Cv
 Column Units Nom. Type Description
Heading.

Orifice m d Measured Orifice diameter. The diameter is

Diameter entered in mm. Convert to
metres for the calculation.

Area of m2 Ao Calculated Orifice area, calculated from the

Orifice orifice diameter.
Area of m2 Ar Given Surface area of the reservoir
Reservoir including area of constant head
tank.
Head m h Measured Head in reservoir at time t. The
head is entered in mm. Convert
to metres for the calculation.

Head at m h1 Measured Head in reservoir at time t = 0. The

Start head is entered in mm. Convert
to metres for the calculation.

Time s t Measured Time since start of run.

h0.5 Calculated Allows the plotting of a straight line

relationship between
coeffecient of discharge, Cd, and
the head loss.

Slope S Calculated Slope of t vs √ℎ1 – √ℎ for each

point.

Discharge Cd Calculated
𝐴𝑅 2
Coefficient Cd= 𝐴𝑜
√𝑔 𝑆

For unsteady flow, the time, t, for the head to drop from h 1to h is given by

𝐴𝑟 2
t= 𝐶𝑑𝐴𝑜
√𝑔 (√ℎ1 - √ℎ)

where Ar is the cross-sectional area of the reservoir (including the

secondary chamber).
PROCEDURE:

1. For flow under a varying head, the overflow pipe is raised to obtain the
maximum head, the header tank is filled to just below the top and the
bench flow control valve closed and the pump stopped. Start a stopwatch
when the level reaches the first convenient scale mark (noted as hl).
You will need to take readings of the falling head (h) at 20 second
intervals. You may find the easiest way of doing this is to attach a piece of
masking tape immediately adjacent to the scale on the reservoir and at 20
second intervals mark the position of the falling level. At the end of this
procedure, you can then read off the head position corresponding to the
known time.

2. The above procedure should be repeated using the second orifice.

APPLICATION PRINCIPLE:

1. Is it justifiable to assume that Cd is a constant over the range of steady

flows tested?

2. Why are the Cd values significantly less than 1.0?

3. Compare the Cd values obtained for the constant and falling head tests.
Which value is the more reliable result?
SAMPLE COMPUTATION:

Table 1:

√𝑦ℎ = √(4.5𝑥10−3 )(0.401) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓

Slope:
𝑥 0.0635
𝑆= = = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟗
√𝑦ℎ 0.025

0.98 − 0.73
% 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 0.98+0.73 𝑥100 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟐𝟒%
2
Table 2:

𝑉 0.002 𝑚3
𝑄𝑡 = = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓
𝑡 175 𝑠

√ℎ = √0.401 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓

𝑄𝑡 1.14𝑥10−5
= = 𝟏. 𝟖𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓
√ℎ 0.633

Table 3:

√ℎ2 = √0.393 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟕

√ℎ1 − √ℎ2 0.633 − 0.627

= = 𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝑡 3
0.66 − 0.61
% 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 0.66+0.61 𝑥100 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟗%
2
ILLUSTRATION:
QUESTION AND ANSWER:

1. Is it justifiable to assume that Cd is a constant over the range of steady

flows tested?

Coefficient of discharge is a property of the orifice, and not the fluid. It

depends on the orifice pattern and the pressure difference on both sides.
Besides, it is a factor introduced because ideal fluids don't exist, ie, they
are always viscous to an extent and perfectly laminar flow cannot be
achieved. Thus, I'm guessing coefficient of discharge can be assumed
same even when you turn the inlet valve to vary the flow rate.

2. Why are the Cd values significantly less than 1.0?

Cd is the ratio of the actual discharge to the ideal discharge, assuming

unit coefficients of contraction and velocity, equal to the product of these
coefficients.

3. Compare the Cd values obtained for the constant and falling head tests.
Which value is the more reliable result?

Steady flow is recommended for coarse-grained soils. Steady total

head drop is measured across gauge length L, as water flows
through a sample of cross-section area A while falling head tests is
Recommended for fine-grained soils’. Total head h in standpipe of
area a is allowed to fall; heads h1 and h2 are measured at times
t1 and t2. Hydraulic gradient varies with time.
ANALYSIS:

The apparatus used in this experiment is designed to fit the top portion of the
hydraulics bench; the inlet pipe must be connected to supply water in the device.
An overflow pipe was provided to permit changes in the head and a flexible hose
attached to the overflow pipe allows return of the excess water to the hydraulics
bench.

The vertical needles designed to plot the trajectory of the jet. A paper is attached
to the backboard and the needles are adjusted to track the shape of the water.
A screw can be use to secure the position of the needles.

Throughout this experiment the trajectory of the steady flow water condition is
being measured. The coefficient of discharge (Cv) is measured through taking the
square root of the head (h). On the other hand, the coefficient of velocity is
measured by taking the slope of the yh with x.
CONCLUSION:

It was proven in this experiment that flow rate of a steady stream can be
measured using this method. The trajectory of the the water was measured and
calculated to come up with the coefficient of velocity and coefficient of discharge.
The Cv and Cd were computed using the h and y values.

To be able to get an accurate result of the experiment, the level of the apparatus
must be checked so that it will not affect the position data, the needles must be
securely placed almost touching the steady stream trajectory, lastly the accuracy
of taking the head (H) on the third part of the experiment is important in the
computation of Cd. Overall the experiment is successful with 29.24 percent
difference in Cv and 2.99 percent in Cd.
APPLICATION:

Effects of spatial resolution on PIV investigation of a turbulent orifice jet

Despite the wide variety of applications of orifice jets, ranging over marine
propulsion, pollutant discharge and studies on the cardio-circulatory system, the
number of specific investigations on the effect of Reynolds number, of the
specific geometry and forcing on the large and especially small-scale statistics is
still far to be complete (Quinn (1989), Boersma et al. (1998), Mi et al. (2001),
Quinn (2005), Mi et al. (2007), Romano et Falchi (2010)).

The behavior of this type of jet is still not fully understood, due to the complexity
of its velocity field, especially in the near field. The vena contracta phenomenon
is an example of this complexity, being the flow forced to pass through the orifice
so that the streamlines have to converge just after it, whereas further
downstream, those streamlines must retrieve the straight direction thus diverging
again and giving rise to a minimum cross-section, which is the “vena contracta”
(probably first described by Evangelista Torricelli in his experiment on
atmospheric pressure (1643)).

In this work, the attention is focused to the large-scale statistics (mean field and
higher statistical moments of the velocity) and to the small-scale statistics
(velocity derivative statistical moments), with a special care regarding the effect
of spatial resolution on Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) measurements. This
topic has been a crucial point since the first works on PIV (Adrian and Yao
(1985); Willert and Gharib (1991)).

To investigate the effect of spatial resolution on the measurements, framed areas

of different size have been considered by changing the magnification factor
(namely the object plane distance). Making reference to the orifice diameter D,
squared regions 2D x 2D, 3D x 3D, 4D x 4D and 5D x 5D have been framed on
the acquisition camera. For each condition, 10000 images have been acquired to
evaluate the statistical moments, thus ensuring a maximum statistical error equal
to 3% on the fourth-order moment. The comparison have been performed not
only the basis of large-scale statistical moments but also from the point of view of
small-scales by studying the fulfillment of isotropy of the jet flow (Kolmogorov
1941), through the estimate of spatial derivatives and mutual ratios (Taylor
(1935); George and Hussein (1991)).
The experimental setup of the PIV system consists of a high speed camera (2
kHz at maximum resolution 1024*1024) with illumination provided by a
synchronized Nd-Yag Laser, 200 mJ in power. The water orifice jet is generated
from a circular hole on a plate inside a transparent tank which is fed by a
constant head tank.

Regarding to the large scales, first of all the occurrence of the vena contracta
phenomenon for an orifice jet has been shown in several ways. In addition, it has
been highlighted the small influence of spatial resolution on low order statistical
moments, which slightly rises, due to local averaging, as the order of the
statistics becomes higher.

Then small scale features of the jet have been examined, particularly with
interest to the evaluation of spatial derivatives of velocity components and then to
the fulfillment of isotropy hypotheses of the jet. Based on those data, an
incomplete local isotropy condition is attained, although restricted to the near
zone, and an influence of spatial resolution that is high on the determination of
local features of such a jet and moderate on the overall behavior of spatial
derivatives and on deductions about symmetry hypotheses.

REFERENCE:

G. Lacagnina, G. P. Romano. Effects of spatial resolution on PIV

investigation of a turbulent orifice jet. Department of Mechanical and
Aerospatial Engineering.
http://ltces.dem.ist.utl.pt/lxlaser/lxlaser2012/upload/254_paper_fdxidy.pdf