Lecture 31

Maxwell’s equations.
Electromagnetic waves.
 Maxwell’s equations

r r q
Ñ
∫ E ×dA = ε Gauss’s law for E
0

r r
Ñ
∫ B ×dA = 0 Gauss’s law for B

r r d ΦB
Ñ
∫ E ×dl = − dt Faraday’s law

r r  d ΦE 
Ñ
∫ B ×dl = µ0  I + ε 0 dt ÷
÷ Ampere’s law
 
 In the absence of sources

The symmetry is then very impressive:

r r r r
Ñ
∫ E ×dA = 0 Ñ
∫ B ×dA = 0
r r d ΦB r r d ΦE
Ñ
∫ E ×dl = − dt Ñ
∫ B ×dl = µ0ε 0 dt

changing B-field induces E-field changing E-field induces B-field

 E produces B, B produces E

Example: At some point P in space, the measured electric field as a

function of time is: E P

This E field MUST be accompanied by a B field.

But if the induced B field also changes with time, it induces an E
field!
This can be self-sustained!
“Perturbation” (E or B field) propagates in space ⇒ wave
Very special wave, can propagate in vacuum: no medium!
Electromagnetic waves
 Plane electromagnetic wave

Let us assume that we have:

• E-field in the y direction, uniform along yz plane
• B-field in the z direction, uniform along yz plane
• propagation in the x direction

y
E
B
E and B are the same at all points in this
x plane, but different at a parallel plane
further down the x axis.

z
 y
Faraday’s law:

Line integral over a rectangular Ey (x,t ) Ey (x + ∆x,t

circuit (sides Δx, a) in the xy a )
plane.: Bz (x,t ) x
Bz (x + ∆x,t
r r z )
∫ E ×dl = E y ( x + ∆x ,t ) a − E y ( x ,t ) a
Ñ ∆x
If Δx is small

d ΦB ∂Bz ( x ,t )
Bz ( x ,t ) dx ~ aBz ( x ,t ) ∆x
x +∆x
ΦB = a ∫ = a ∆x
x dt ∂t

r r d ΦB ∂Bz ( x ,t )
E y ( x + ∆x ,t ) − E y ( x ,t )  a = −a ∆x
Ñ
∫ E ×dl = −
dt
⇒   ∂t

∂Bz ( x ,t ) E y ( x + ∆x ,t ) − E y ( x ,t ) ∂Bz ( x ,t ) ∂E y ( x ,t )
=−  → =−
∂t ∆x
∆x → 0
∂t ∂x
 y
Ampere’s law:

Line integral over a rectangular E y ( x + ∆ x, t

Ey (x,t ) )
circuit (sides Δx, a) in the xz a
plane: Bz (x,t ) x

z Bz (x + ∆x,t
r r d ΦE )
Ñ
∫ B ×dl = ε 0 µ0 dt ∆x

∂E y ( x ,t )
 −Bz ( x + ∆x ,t ) + Bz ( x ,t )  a = ε 0 µ0a ∆x
  ∂t

∂E y ( x ,t ) Bz ( x + ∆x ,t ) − Bz ( x ,t )
ε 0 µ0 =−
∂t ∆x

∂E y ( x ,t ) ∂Bz ( x ,t )
 → ε 0 µ0 =−
∆x → 0
∂t ∂x
 ∂E y ∂Bz ∂2E y ∂2Bz
ε 0 µ0 =− → ε 0 µ0 =−
∂t ∂x ∂
∂t
∂t 2
∂t ∂x

∂Bz ∂E y
=− ∂2E y ∂2E y
∂t ∂x ε 0 µ0 =
∂t 2
∂x 2
∂2Bz ∂2Bz
∂  ∂Bz  ∂  ∂E y 
= =  ÷
÷ = −  ÷
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂t ∂x  ∂t  ∂x  ∂x ÷
 

∂2Bz ∂2Bz
Similarly, we can obtain ε 0 µ0 =
∂t 2
∂x 2

Remember the wave 1 ∂2y ∂2y

=
equation? (lecture 5) v 2 ∂t 2 ∂x 2 This is a
wave with speed
This value is essentially identical to the speed of light 1
measured by Foucault in 1860! (3×108 m/s)
v =
ε 0 µ0
Maxwell identified light as an electromagnetic
wave.
 Sinusoidal solution

One of the solutions: E y = E max cos ( kx − ωt )

2π ω 1
with k = ω = 2πf c = λf = =
λ k ε 0 µ0

∂Bz ∂E y ∂Bz
=− ⇒ = kE max sin ( kx − ωt )
∂t ∂x ∂t

k
⇒ Bz = E max cos ( kx − ωt )
ω
1
Bmax = E max
c
 Harmonic EM waves

In general, harmonic EM wave propagating in the x direction:

r r with
E = E max cos ( kx − ωt )
r r 2π ω 1
(
B = Bmax cos kx − ωt ) k =
λ
ω = 2πf c = λf =
k
=
ε 0 µ0

r r
g E is perpendicular to B
r r
g propagation direction is E × B
f o r al l
g wave speed is c = 1 ε 0 µ0 True shapes!
r r wave
g E and B are always in phase
g E = cB (magnitudes)
 ACT: B field

This is the E-field shown at a point in space and time for an EM wave
that travels in the negative z direction. What is the direction of the B-
field at this point and time?

A. +x
B. −x
C. +z
D. −z

r r
Propagation direction is E × B
 In-class example: radio stations

Radio stations broadcast at frequencies that range from 540 kHz

(low end of AM band) up to 108 MHz (high end of FM band).
What is the range of wavelengths associated with these
frequencies?
c
A. 5.55 cm to 2.78 m λ=
f
B. 2.78 m to 55.5 m
3 × 108 m/s
λmax = = 555 m
C. 55.5 m to 278 m 540 × 10 Hz
3

D. 278 m to 555 m 3 × 108 m/s

λmin = = 2.78 m
108 × 10 Hz
6
E. 2.78 m to 555 m

Big range!
Very different physics (we’ll come back to this: diffraction and
reflection)
 EM waves not in vacuum

Phys 221:
E field inside a material is characterized by dielectric
constant κ or the dielectric permittivity ε = κε 0

Similarly:
B field inside a material is characterized by relative
permeability κm or the permeability µ = κµ0

EM wave speed in a dielectric:

1 c c
n = κκ m (>1 always )
v = = =
εµ κκ m n Refraction index