National and Kapodistrian University of Athens

Faculty of English Studies

ACADEMIC DISCOURSE:

KEY TO SELF STUDY MATERIAL

Course coordinators:

Associate Professors
E. Ifantidou, B. Mitsikopoulou, A. Tzanne

ATHENS

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ACADEMIC DISCOURSE: SEMINAR READER KEY
PART A – ACADEMIC READINGS

1.1 A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING DYSLEXIA

TASK 1
(I) Introduction
(II) Definition Of Dyslexia
(III) Raising Awareness
(IV) Theories of Dyslexia
(V) Approaches and Programmes used by Specialists

TASK 2
1.B, 2.A, 3.D, 4.F, 5.C
Extra sentence: E

TASK 3
Paragraph 1 Paragraph 3
a. literacy f. indicator
b. numeracy g. Act
c. dyscalculia Paragraph 4
Paragraph 2 h. overview
d. retrieve i. partial
e. range Paragraph 5
j. multisensory
k. eclectically

TASK 4
1. different, distinct
2. effect, consequences
3. knowledge, experience, consciousness, realisation
4. answer, react, reply
5. contemporary, up-to-date
6. method, program

TASK 5
1. provide (v)
2. literary (adj.), (il)literate (adj.), (il)literacy (n), literal (adj.)
3. aware (adj.)
4. response (n), (ir)responsive (adj.), (ir)responsiveness (n)
5. basic (adj.), basically (adv.), basics (n.)
6. specify (v.), specification (n.), specifically (adv.), specifics (n)

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 1.2. DISCOURSE AND MANIPULATION

TASK 1
a. a sentence definition:
Manipulation as intended in this work is a communicative and interactional practice,
in which a manipulator exercises control over other people, usually against their will
or against their best interests.
b. an extended definition:
Manipulation as intended in this work is a communicative and interactional practice,
in which a manipulator exercises control over other people, usually against their will
or against their best interests. In everyday usage, the concept of manipulation has
negative associations – manipulation is bad – because such a practice violates social
norms.
c. elaboration :
- Manipulation not only involves power, but specifically abuse of power, that is,
domination.
- In a broader, semiotic sense of manipulation, such illegitimate influence may also
be exercised with pictures, photos, movies or other media
d. exemplification:
Indeed, many forms of contemporary communicative manipulation, e.g. by the mass
media, are multimodal, as is typically the case in advertising
e. subordinate clause:
In everyday usage, the concept of manipulation has negative associations –
manipulation is bad – because such a practice violates social norms
f. concession:
The crucial difference in this case is that in persuasion the interlocutors are free to
believe or act as they please, depending on whether or not they accept the arguments
of the persuader, whereas in manipulation recipients are typically assigned a more
passive role: they are victims of manipulation.
g. in-text documentation:
(Day, 1999; Messaris, 1997)
h. cautious language:
usually against their will / such illegitimate influence may also be exercised /
manipulation could be a form of (legitimate) persuasion
i. impersonal language:
recipients are typically assigned a more passive role / the full consequences of the
beliefs or actions advocated by the manipulator / people are being acted upon against
their fully conscious will and interests

TASK 2
The term is used to refer to a myriad of functions and conditions in which two or more
different methods, processes or forms of delivery are used. On the Web, it refers to
asking for something one way and receiving the answer another; for example requesting
information via speech and receiving the answer on screen. Multimodal technology
allows users to utilise multiple forms of input and output – including voice, keypads and
stylus – interchangeably in the same interaction.

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TASK 3
1. It refers to a behaviour or belief that is considered typical of a community.
2. Legitimation is the act of rendering someone or something legitimate. In Social
Sciences, it refers to the process by which an act or ideology becomes legitimate.
3. Semiotic is related to the study of signs and symbols. It includes the study of how
meaning is constructed and understood.
4. An interlocutor is a person who takes part in a conversation. It is also the interviewer
or facilitator of communication in an oral interview.

TASK 4
1. Manipulation as intended in this work is a communicative and interactional practice
exercised (by a manipulator) to control other people.
2. Not only does manipulation involve power, but …
3. Other people are made to believe or do things that …
4. Such illegitimate influence is likely to be exercised with…
5. If there were not negative associations, manipulation could be a form of legitimate
persuasion.

TASK 5
1. manipulate 9. argue
2. practise (British English) 10. receive
practice (American English) 11. intend
3. conceive 12. immigrate
4. associate 13. analyse
5. abuse 14. communicate
6. dominate 15. legitimise
7. influence 16. employ
8. persuade

TASK 6
1. violation 8. acceptance
2. involvement 9. assignment
3. implication 10. occurrence
4. belief 11. resistance
5. action 12. blame
6. pleasure 13. judgement (British English)
7. (in)dependence judgment (American English)
14. assumption

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 1.3 MUSIC AND LANGUAGE LEARNING

TASK 1
C. Implications of intuitive melodic approach in L1 & L2 acquisition

TASK 2
The missing paragraph should go after paragraph 3 because the previous paragraph is
about what mothers do at home and the missing paragraph naturally follows saying
what happens at school. Also the following paragraph refers to teacher discourse.

TASK 3
Paragraph 1 Paragraph 3
a. foetus f. fundamental
b. womb & uterus g. affective
c. auditory h. utterances
Paragraph 2 Paragraph 4
d. interaction i. discourse
e. accommodate j. contour
Paragraph 5
k. interpret
TASK 4
a. invented
b. acquire
c. decelerate, retard
d. occur

1.4 THE LANGUAGE OF PAIN

TASK 1
1.a, 2.a, 3.b, 4.b, 5.a, 6.a, 7.a, 8.b

TASK 2
1.c, 2.i, 3.d, 4.a, 5.g, 6.f, 7.e, 8.b, 9.j, 10.h

TASK 3
1.d, 2.g, 3.b, 4.h, 5.f, 6.a, 7.c, 8.j, 9.i, 10.e

TASK 4

1. avowals = acknowledgement
represent = depict
dimension = aspect
whereby = through which

2. In essence = In reality

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 aspect = dimension
distinction - distinguish
What distinguishes…

3. assumption = belief, conjecture

verbally = in words
Since pain is considered to be invisible, …

4. In addition = additionally, moreover, furthermore, what is more

given that = provided that, on the condition that
induce = cause
spiritual = religious
…it should not be assumed / the patients’ cultural and spiritual beliefs may cause
their silence

PART B – ACADEMIC WRITING TASKS

2.1
1. assist 6. eliminate
2. established 7. investigating
3. increased 8. raised
4. reduce 9. create
5. determined 10. fluctuating

2.2
1. caused, 2. repeated, 3. create, 4. detected, 5. faced

2.3
1. If you fail the exam, you cannot enter the university.
2. What are the causes of deformation then? Several possibilities exist.
3. One can clearly see the differences between these two processes.
4. A small amount of ammonium dichromate is gradually added to the gelatin solution.
5. These special tax laws have been enacted in six states: Illinois, Iowa, Ohio and other
north eastern states.
6. The subjects had little difficulty with the task.

2.4
1-2. Description of a situation
3. Identification of a problem
4-5. Description of a solution
6. Evaluation of the solution

2.5
On the other hand, in fact, although, for example, thus, despite

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2.6
a. Read the Madagascar text and underline the summary words used in the text.
1
Madagascar has one of the world’s oldest systems of natural reserves. 2This system,
established during the early 1900s, was designed to protect lemurs and other animal
species unique to the island. 3However, due to severe economic hardship, this island
country lacks the funds to properly manage the reserves; as a result, many species risk
extinction. 4One recent solution to this problem has been offered by the international
community. 5If Madagascar begins to better protect its reserves, its foreign debt will be
reduced. 6This incentive should lead to some level of improvement.

2.7
1. drop, 2. trend, 3. number, 4. risk, 5. assurance, 6. proposals

2.8
realisation, belief, factors, finding

2.9
1. Helium is a gas which consists of two protons, two neutrons, and two electrons.
2. A Labor union is an organisation of workers formed to improve their economic status
and working conditions.
3. A White dwarf is a star that is unusually faint given its extreme temperature.
4. Rice is a cereal grain that usually requires a subtropical climate and an abundance of
moisture for growth.
5. Transduction is a technique in which genes are inserted into a host cell by means of
viral infection.
6. Heat is a form of energy which can be transmitted through solid and liquid media by
conduction.

2.10
1. Aluminum is a lightweight metal often used for high-tension power transmission.
2. Heat is a form of energy transmitted through solid and liquid media by conduction.
3. A brake is a device capable of slowing the motion of a mechanism.
4. A dome is generally a hemispherical roof on top of a circular, square, or other-shaped
space.
5. Snow is a form of precipitation resulting from the sublimation of water vapor into
solid crystals at temperatures below 0o C.
6. An antigen is a substance which causes the formation of antibodies, the body’s
natural response to foreign substances.
7. A piccolo is a small flute pitched an octave higher than a standard flute.
8. An oocyte is a cell which undergoes meiosis to produce an ovum or egg.
9. A catalyst is a substance which speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction without
changing its own structure.

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10. A black hole is a celestial body having approximately the same mass as the sun and a
gravitational radius of about 3 km.

2.11
1. with, 2. through, 3. to, 4. from, 5. during, 6. around

2.12
1. a speech sound 6. a student of/an expert in
2. a shape 7. substance
3. an appliance 8. a process
4. gas 9. a process
5. an animal or plant 10. a story

2.13
a computer virus: a hidden code within a computer program intended to cause errors
and destroy stored information

a conductor: a person who leads or guides a group of people, esp. a group of singers, a
band or an orchestra/ etc.

language: a human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, feelings and

desires by means of a system of sounds and sound symbols.

linguistics: the science which studies language, its structure, acquisition and relationship
to other forms of communication.

2.14
1. History, origin of the term, development
2. In chronological order (order of time)
3. Past tenses to talk about past events and present tenses to talk about things which are
always true in the present
4. No; informal

2.15
1.d, 2.a, 3.c, 4.f, 5.e, 6.b

2.16

Table 1
While vowels and consonants are common in all languages, there are many differences
between the two. Vowels are produced by allowing unobstructed flow of air through the
mouth whereas consonants are produced by obstructing the flow of air through the
mouth. When producing vowels, there are no points of articulation or contact-position of
tongue. By contrast, when we produce consonants, there are many points of articulation-
lips, tongue and teeth, tongue and palate, etc. Moreover, lip rounding is important when
we produce vowels whereas it is rarely important when we produce consonants. In

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addition, while vowels are voiced, consonants can be voiced or voiceless. What is more,
while vowels can easily be produced alone and can even constitute an entire word, e.g.
eye, many consonants are difficult to produce without an accompanying vowel. Finally,
vowels can carry pitch and loudness whereas consonants cannot carry pitch and loudness.

Table 2
Both fission and fusion release energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. However, fission
occurs with heavy nuclei whereas fusion occurs with light nuclei. In the former neutrons
bombard nuclei of atoms, splitting the nuclei apart and releasing energy. By contrast, in
the latter two nuclei combine at high temperatures and the energy released is even greater
than that released in fission. Fission can occur in a nuclear reactor to generate electricity
whereas in fusion, one nucleus is formed along with a neutron, releasing energy. Fission
could also occur spontaneously whereas fusion occurs in the sun and stars. Fission does
not require extreme temperatures while fusion requires temperatures of 1,000,000o C. The
fuel needed for fission is usually uranium, which is expensive and difficult to extract
whereas the fuel needed for fusion is hydrogen, an abundant element.

2.17
1. Sentences 3 & 4
2. Simple Present – used to introduce definitions, general truths
3. rather, for example, on the other hand, finally, therefore, in other words
4. There should follow a reference to the relief theory, as it is the only one remaining to
be discussed in its relationship to modern theories in the last paragraph.
5. It’s a GS text.
6. No, it does not.
7. Although she has not clearly positioned herself, the favorable way she presents the
relief theory and the fact that she reserves the last part of the passage for its
discussion could mean she has a preference to the specific theory.

2.18
It depends on whether the specific discourse requirements belong to a “from general to
specific” structure (generalisation-definition), or to a “from specific to general” one
(definition- generalisation). This answers the question included in the task as well.
The following response corresponds to the “from specific to general” (definition-
generalisation) structure. The exact opposite stands for the “from general to specific”
structure.
a) 2,1 b) 2,1 c) 1,2

2.19
First, a specimen is collected. Then, the specimen is labeled and analysed. Next, the
results are recorded. After that, a report is completed. Subsequently, the report is
dispatched. Eventually, the report is read before it is acted upon. Finally, the report is
filed.

2.20
1. … thus stimulating technical innovation.

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2. … thereby attracting the female
3. … thus damaging the host computer when the executable is run.
4. … leaving the soil uncontaminated.
5. … creating difficulties in enforcing any agreement.

2.21
1. The question remains whether it is possible…
2. Current studies provide little information on how this policy is being…
3. We need to know what students are required…
4. There is some question as to whether the acquired skill is then transferred…
5. It has not been determined how these policies are likely…
6. It might … to investigate to what extent persistence is/can be a major factor…
7. Another issue … to what extent the economy is subject…
8. Without … which of the strategies is the optimal…

2.22
Differences between texts (a) and (b):

Length: Text (a) is much shorter compared to text (b). It also lacks a proper introductory /
top sentence regarding its topic (food safety).
Audience: Text (a) is less coherent and not carefully structured and does not, therefore,
help the reader/audience fully understand the different sides of the problem. On the
whole, it also seems less formal than text (b), with shorter and less elaborate sentences,
lacking linking devices, seemingly addressed to a less educated audience, despite the fact
that it assumes a great amount of background knowledge compared to text (b).
The reader would, therefore, prefer text (b) as text (a) is much weaker regarding the
amount of detail in each part of the problem-solution text and the use of examples.
Clearly, text (a) appears to be incomplete.

2.23
1.b, 2.d, 3.e, 4.a, 5.c, 6.f

2.24
1. from, 2. by/in, 3. on, 4. in, 5. in, 6. through, 7. with, of, 8. with/by

2.25
Proposed Text
Research was carried out to investigate whether and to what extent Venezuelan scientists
faced difficulties when preparing papers for Anglophone audiences. As can be seen from
the figures in table 9, approximately half of them adopted writing strategies that involved
the use of their first language, as they tended to write in Spanish and then translate into
English or write in Spanish and employ a translator. These difficulties are also shown by
their tendency to outline in Spanish and then write in English, as this way of writing their
papers is also popular, although by a smaller percentage. The number of scientists who
write directly in English must be comparatively small, as only a bare 18% of them do so,
while many tend to borrow phrases from English publications (26%).

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2.26
1. indicate, 2. suggests, 3. question, 4. support, 5. assumed, 6. suggest, 7. influenced,
8. neglected, 9. stimulated, 10. depicts

2.27
1. Economic sanctions can be ineffective
2. Passive smoking may cause cancer
3. Recycling appears to be the best solution to the waste disposal problem
4. Physical exercise can often reduce the severity of depression.
5. Great novels may not make great films.
6. Private schools could provide a better education than public schools

PART C – GENERAL READINGS

3.1 TEXT 1
I. READING

1. Authentic title: Diving into the unknown

2. (a) bogged, (b) parceled out, (c) flamboyant, (d) repulsive, (e) brawl, (f) vagaries,
(g) pernicious, (h) exarcebate, (i) impotence

3. Extract A comes after paragraph 6

Extract B comes after paragraph 7
Extract C comes after paragraph 10

4.
(a) Graig Venter, who runs Celera, is described as a “flamboyant entrepreneur”.
“His methods of distributing the information his company discovers only to subscribers
who in turn spew out applications for patents on genes, raises the prospect of this new
territory being parceled out to US pharmaceutical companies before anyone else has even
got a map. What’s more, the brave new world of genetic research could be stillborn,
bogged into a quagmire of patent law in which the only beneficiaries will be teams of US
corporate lawyers”.

(b) more energetic in order to press for stricter regulations. Points to be considered:
commercialisation of scientific research, close relationship between private sector and
university laboratories, development of a moral philosophy concerning the ethics of
genetics / at the moment this role is characterised as ‘weak’

(c) This statement points to the need for the development of a new moral philosophy
which will provide answers to a number of moral dilemmas posed today: “what’s wrong
with cloning? What genetic disorders do we weed out? What kind of eugenics is
acceptable?”

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5. Some of the points that may be included in the summary
• the “working draft” of the genome will be “like wanting to learn Hungarian and
being given lists of all the Hungarian words but without any of them defined”.
• It’s only the beginning. We are in Year Zero.
• Scientific breakthrough.
• Fear that genetic modification may fall in the hands of “unscrupulous corporation
intent on maximum commercialisation”.
• Weak government regulation.

3.2 TEXT 2

I. READING

2.
paragraphs 1-2
a) unveiled
b) full fledged
c) implemented
d) rampant

paragraphs 3-7
e) nexus
f) delinquency
g) drift into
h) perpetrated
i) surveillance

paragraphs 8-9
j) tantamount
k) derail
l) override

3.
(i) kids, juvenile, minors, young people
(ii) criminal, lawbreakers, juvenile crime, troublemakers, active criminality, juvenile
delinquency, crime indicators, street crimes, muggings, criminalisation
(iii) police sources, combat juvenile crime/delinquency, police profiling, deputy police
commissioner, law enforcement officials/agents, squads, surveillance, Metropolitan
Police, investigate crimes

4.
(a) Law enforcement officials/Some people agree that the proposed database program
for registering children with a criminal potential is necessary for combating rampant
juvenile crime.…

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(b) Implementation of the program will initially be confined to 11 London boroughs.
(c) Children are responsible for a large number of street crimes committed in London.
(d) Section 115 of the country’s Crime and Disorder Act is expected to override (any)
concern for privacy.

5. For
• prevent children from developing into lawbreakers
• combat widespread juvenile crime
• reduce street crimes committed by children
• identify underlying causes of children's bad behavior and recommend therapy

Against
• extreme form of police profiling
• private information will be disclosed
• greater criminalization of children
• heightened discrimination against certain racial groups

3.3 TEXT 3

I. READING

1.
A. What are top-up fees
B. Which universities might introduce them?
C. Why might universities want them?
D. How might higher fees encourage poorer students to go to university?
E. So how are students – and parents – responding to such plans?
F. Are there any alternatives?
G. So when might we find out?

2.
Paragraphs A-B
a) ivy-league
b) top up
c) up front
d) tag

Paragraphs C-D
e) pledge
f) be put on the backburner
g) frontline
h) recruit

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Paragraphs E-G
i) step up
j) reticence
k) foot
l) kick in
m) across the board
n) threshold
o) term

3.
Finance: fees, privately-funded, loans, underfunded, income tax
Education: tuition, undergraduates, graduate, degree, rector

4.
Straw’s son leads Oxford top-up revolt
UEA students make a noise against fees
Kinnock weighs in against top-up fees
Imperial denies plans to charge £10,500
Top-up fees would hit poorer students, Cambridge warns
Ministers ‘should not be bullied’ into top-up fees (Ministers should not be forced to
consent to/frightened into top up fees)
Leak reveals university plan to levy £10,500 fees
Student finance proposals sound ‘death knell’ for participation (mark the end of their
participation)
MPs demand more help for poorer students
Anger as top-up fees resurface
Funding ‘should be tailored to universities’ strengths’ (should be planned according to)
Chancellor at odds with Blair over top-up fees (in conflict with)

3.4 TEXT 4

I. READING

2.
Paragraphs A-B Paragraphs F-H
a) depressing h) handful
b) pandemic i) arresting
c) perilously j) prevalence
d) sweeping

Paragraphs C-E
e) stabilise
f) tentatively
g) beefed-up

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3.
(a) The risk could not be higher.
(b) to claim the lives of: to be killed by a disease
(c) bearing fruit: are producing good results
(d) seem like a copy or representation (the same personal tragedies are produced again
and again)
(e) to slow the epidemic: start making the epidemic transmit/expand more slowly

3.5 TEXT 5

I. READING

1.
1. Children who get rejected from school and ‘gifted’ children should be randomly,
equally and indiscriminately allocated to both unpopular and successful schools.
2. Favouring the view in 1 above: Daily Mirror, Independent
Opposing the view in 1 above: Times, Daily Telegraph, Sun
3. Compromising position: Evening Standard, Daily Mail

2.
1. oversubscribed comprehensives: state schools which too many pupils apply to
attend
2. sink schools: secondary schools (in very poor areas and without good resources)
where many of the pupils behave badly and fail to get any qualifications.
3. feral children: wild, uncontrolled
4. reek of naïve egalitarianism: disapprove of the ‘simplistic’/’silly’ belief that all
people are equal, have the same rights and opportunities.
5. ‘bog-standard comprehensives’: ordinary state schools, with nothing special or
interesting about them.
6. sneer at: express contempt for sb/sth by the expression on your face or by what you
say.
7. hidebound view: old-fashioned, and unwilling or unlikely to change.
8. hanker after (v.): want, desire, long for sth.
9. hit back with both barrels: severely attack or criticise sb who has attacked or
criticised you
10. patronizing: sb speaking or behaving in a way that seems friendly, but which shows
that s/he thinks s/he is superior to you.

II. LANGUAGE IN USE

1.
Informal: Sun, Daily Telegraph
5 features (e.g. for Sun): Shorter sentences, uncomplicated syntax, informal/casual
vocabulary (air his opinion, out of touch, talk privilege, match the prince any day), use of
imperative (look at), use of contractions (He’s, we’re).
Formal: Times, Independent

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5 features (e.g. for Times): Long syntactic structures, complex syntactic structures, formal
vocabulary (de facto creation of, assume responsibility for, undermine academic
reputation), no contractions, lack of idioms.

2.
Implied meaning: Mr. Clarke seems to be supporting the underprivileged pupils, for
example, by criticizing the prince for his patronizing attitude towards them, but the truth
is he has had an education as elitist as the prince himself (most prestigious schools and
universities), so being one of the privileged ones, it may be rather hypocritical to stand
for failing students and their missing rights and opportunities. This implicit criticism aims
to weaken Mr. Clarke’s views and position.

3.6 TEXT 6

I. READING

1.
The paragraph should be inserted after paragraph 2.

In paragraph 1 the author refers to “historians and political experts” in a general,

unspecified way. The paragraph to be inserted refers to “these experts” in a more
specified way which relies on previously given information in the text in order to be
understood. Also, in the paragraph to be inserted the phrase “The highly qualified
optimism” has built on previously mentioned lexical items such as “slight hope”, “more
dignified position” and “happier legacy of total victory”, with which paragraph 2 ends.

In the paragraph to be inserted there is an introductory mention of “historical

revisionism”, whereas in paragraph 3 there is a more specified reference to this
revisionism (“the focus of some of the most interesting revisionism”). In order to make
sense of the kind of revisionism that is meant here, we need to look first at the paragraph
in which the concept is introduced.

2.
By analysing previous cases where superpowers had to end conflicts with disastrous and
embarrassing consequences for them, experts seem to agree that there is still much hope
of American troops withdrawing from Iraq with dignity.

3.
1. untarnished = unblemished, unaffected
2. confounded = confused
3. wrenching = very sad
4. inconclusive = unclear as to who has won
5. contention = opinion, belief
6. inept = an inept person does something with a complete lack of skill

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7. riven by factions = torn apart by groups of people who fight for their ideas and
disagree with one another
8. insurgency = an uprising, a violent attempt by citizens to oppose the government

4.
Vietnamization refers to the process of Americans training South Vietnamese security
forces to defend their own country. It is believed that something similar, namely training
Iraqi forces to defend their country, is a necessary prerequisite in order for America to
withdraw from the conflict with Iraq in a dignified way.

II. LANGUAGE IN USE

1.
1. (a) The author appears to support the withdrawal of American troops from Iraq. Note
that he does so indirectly, in a number of ways listed below. Do not take out marks if the
candidate does not refer to the author’s indirectness.

2. Some of the features that support this answer are:

• The author refers to “pressure for the United States to leave Iraq”, but does not say
where this pressure comes from (inanimate subject, unclear agent behind the noun).
He implies that the US must leave Iraq. (paragraph 1)
• The author takes for granted/presupposes that the US will leave Iraq, it’s the way to
do it that appears to concern him (“United States can leave Iraq in the near future in
a way that will not be remembered as a national embarrassment”). (paragraph 1)
• The author vests his introduction with the power of “historians and political
experts”, which gives extra weight to the “slight hope” that the US can leave Iraq in
dignity.
• The first sentence of the second paragraph seems again to presuppose that America
wants to leave Iraq, with the only concern being the way to do it so that it retains its
pride.
• The presentation of information in the second paragraph is done in a series of
antitheses (still, but) that take the reader’s mind from “wrenching”, “humiliation”
and “disastrous” and reassure him/her of the “dignified position” and “legacy of
total victory” of the US should they leave Iraq.
• Paragraph 3 promotes the idea that leaving Iraq after having Iraqized the forces is a
dignified way out, again presupposing that America will leave the country.
• In paragraph 4 a counter-argument concerning the Iraqization of forces and the
dignified exit is presented, but quickly dismissed through the conjunction of
contrast (“nevertheless”) and the implication that the Iraqi CAN defend themselves
against rioters. The last sentence of the paragraph presupposes that the American
troops will withdraw at some point, it’s just a matter of setting the date.
• Paragraph 5 further supports the idea that local troops can be trained to fight
effectively. The doubts expressed through listing differences between Korea and
Iraq at the end of the paragraph seem to concern the degree of success in training
the locals, not the basic presupposition that American troops will leave some day.

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 • Paragraph 6 presents the case of Algeria, from which the French pulled out after a
long occupation. Notice that differences between Algeria and Iraq are presented
first, but “striking parallels” remain with the reader, as they are presented second in
this comparison between cases. The overall implication is that since the two cases
seem to be developing in a similar way, they should end in the same way, namely
with the Americans pulling out from Iraq.
• Paragraph 7 compares Bush’s and de Gaulle’s rationale for engaging in a foreign
cnflict and confirms their similarity (“Like President Bush…”). The paragraph ends
with a positive (for the French) outcome of the conflict in Algeria, which was
related to de Gaulle’s agreeing to withdraw. By analogy, it is implied that a similar
positive outcome awaits America, should it withdraw. The text ends with the words
“independence” and “victory”, positive concept which, in this paragraph, are
associated with the verb “withdraw”.
• In the paragraph to be inserted, as well as in the rest of the text, experts’ views are
presented in both direct and indirect speech, all presupposing, discussing or
promoting withdrawal of American troops. These references to experts and their
grounded optimism concerning the fate awaiting Iraq after the US leave strengthens
the author’s indirect support of American withdrawal.

2.
(i) Unlike the legacy of victory in World War II, the American adventures in Vietnam are
only slightly encouraging for a superpower that wants to return home but also retain its
pride.
(ii) Scrutinizing past conflicts has led analysts to conclude that if America withdraws its
troops, the situation in Iraq may improve.

3.
Many analysts have disagreed with Melvin Laird’s opinion, saying that huge parts of the
Iraqi security forces are so incompetent they could never defend their own country
against riots without the American military backing them up. But George Bush said
November 30 that Iraqi troops are more and more taking the lead in battle, though he
didn’t say when American troops would leave Iraq.

PART D – GRAMMAR TASKS

4.1 Recognise independent clauses
1. [The stock market finally rose] but [investors remained nervous for quite some time].
2. Even though citizens’ groups invest time and money on campaigns before the
elections, [many voters still avoid participating in the general elections].
3. [Vitamin C is good for colds] and [Vitamin E keeps the skin in good condition].
4. [Expect Martin Scorcheze’s new film to cause controversy] - [the theme is bold and
provocative].
5. [We expected chaos]; [we found catastrophe].

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6. [Ordinary books are still more convenient than most computerized texts] because they
employ a technology that doesn’t go out of date—paper.
7. [In the 18th century, wool cloth was slightly easier to produce than linen]. After the
sheep were sheared, [the fleece was picked through and dirt was removed].
8. [Painters such as Renoir and Monet, who wanted art to depict life, [painted common
scenes and ordinary people].
9. [In colonial America most people did not own many garments] and [wash day came
only once or twice a year].
10. [The ice in a skating rink does not melt] because the temperature beneath it is kept
very low.

4.2 Identify independent clauses

When the Prime Minister agreed to debate the leader of the Labour Party in a
series When the Prime Minister agreed to debate the leader of the Labour Party in a series
of national telecasts, the Minister of Finance and his associates were certain that the
Prime Minister would enhance his advantage. The Prime Minister had used the medium
to good effect in 2002, / and he could now count on a phenomenally large audience.
After the 1990s, the number of British families / who watched political debates on TV/
had risen considerably. Millions of British —estimates ran as high as 45 million—tuned
in to watch the first contest.
The outcome was a major surprise. While the Prime Minister seemed constantly
on the defensive, obsessed with scoring debater’s points against his rival, the Labour
leader ignored the Prime Minister/and spoke directly to the nation, enunciating his major
theme of national purpose: “I think/it’s time Britain started moving again.” While the
Labour leader appeared calm and self-possessed, the Prime Minister seemed tense and
haggard (TV cameras were unkind to his features).
Although three more debates followed, they were largely unilluminating
encounters in which various issues were so fuzzed over that neither man’s position was
distinct; it was the first debate that made its mark and, many thought, determined the
outcome of the election. Almost all observers agreed that the Labour Party leader had
scored a clear triumph; at the very least, he had drawn even with the Prime Minister/ and
could no longer be dismissed as a callow upstart.

4.3 Recognise subjects and verbs

1. Most people brush their teeth daily.
2. The original toothbrushes were simply twigs with one soft, shredded edge.
3. People rubbed these “chew sticks” against their teeth.
4. The first genuine toothbrushes originated in China 500 years ago.
5. The bristles came from hogs.
6. During this time, few Europeans brushed their teeth regularly.
7. The discovery of nylon led to a big change in the toothbrush industry and made tooth
care easier.
8. Nylon was tough and resisted the growth of germs.
9. In the 1950s a new, softer version of the nylon toothbrush was developed.
10. With this development, dental care improved worldwide.

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4.4 Use coordinating conjunctions to join independent clauses
1. We can rarely predict the precise consequences of what we do, but we are blessed (or
cursed) with the intellectual capacity to anticipate the outcome of our actions.
2. Very commonly we are faced with a choice between several courses of action, and
this state of affairs accounts for a great deal of our worrying.
3. We often anticipate dreadful things to happen to us, so sometimes we develop severe
anxiety over the predicament of our relatives and loved ones.
4. Such worries have a rational basis, but we are curiously irrational in the way we
pursue them.
5. It is difficult to decide at what point worrying ceases to be ‘normal’, for it is clearly
reasonable to worry.
6. We can manage perfectly well without traveling in planes or lifts, and an evening out
isn’t spoiled by our obsession to check and triple-check the front-door lock.
7. We are not responsible for our psychological response to tense situations, nor are we
to blame for our extreme reactions.
8. In its extreme form, anxiety may be experienced as a generalized ‘free-floating’ state,
or it may be more specifically focused in the form of fear of spiders, closed spaces or
extreme heights.
9. By worrying we may be able to stave off a possible breakdown, for it is an internal
monologue allowing us to solve problems at a time of crisis.
10. In everyday life, anxiety improves performance of a wide variety of tasks, and
according to scientists, it is sometimes highly constructive to be anxious.

4.5 Use correlative constructions to join independent clauses

1. If the government agrees to reduce taxation rates the following year, then the
Conservative Party will raise its popularity the following year.
2. Not only does technology help disabled people, but its use also enables them to feel
secure and self-reliant.
3. Just as reading literature enriches one’s vocabulary, so doing grammar exercises
heightens one’s perception of the correct use of language.
4. Either European leaders and their allies will agree to disarm nuclear weapons, or
peace in the world will never be secured.

4.6 Join independent clauses using semicolons, colons and dashes

1. It had little to do with nature, beyond outbreaks of dandelions, and its forlorn state
was due to lack of means: a lawnmower meant luxury.
2. These stories interest University of Tasmania Environmental Studies Lecturer, Dr
Aidan Davidson—his job is to look after nature strips and to police what should grow
on them.
3. According to Dr Davidson, the function of nature strips was to have utilities
underneath and power lines overhead; but for people living with them it wasn’t
always clear.

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4. In this way, funny things happen you don’t tend to record: nature strips become a
hang-out for pets, refuges for children, places for conversation.
5. Dr Davidson believes middle space is important for people: it represents the living
transition between the safety of the home and the dangerous, no-go zone of the road.
6. Australians have long been ambivalent about the care of nature strips – they are
unsure about their purpose.
7. Some remarkable changes are underway with regard to the preservation of these
pocket-sized public spaces: water recycling projects, expanded streetscapes and
habitat corridors are only a few suggestions.
8. There are schemes for nature strip plantings more appropriate to dry climates; these
include mini parks, conservation forests, even orchards.

4.7 Use adverb conjunctions with semicolons to join independent clauses

1. (moreover)
Climbers and kayakers knew their leader Andrew to be painstakingly thorough about
planning and preparation; moreover, he was outspoken about safety and responsible
risk-taking.
2. (however)
His employers were great supporters of Andrew’s adventures; however, he
resigned before the great Tasmanian challenge.
3. (consequently)
He had to make a living out of what he knew best; consequently, Andrew planned
to go ahead with the Tasman crossing.
4. (similarly)
The adventurous kayaker made a book contact for the Tasmanian trip; similarly,
he exploited his knowledge about unexplored routes to Antarctica.
5. (nevertheless)
Andrew’s drive to pursue adventure didn’t seem to run in the family; nevertheless,
his son, Finlay, has developed a fascination with superheroes.
6. (therefore)
Andrew’s wife, Vicky, knows her husband’s adventures involve a supernatural
element; therefore, her son’s attachment to superheroes does not astonish her.
7. (moreover)
Andrew has worked on the Tasmanian crossing meticulously; moreover, he has
gradually developed a plan, seeing the limits, calculating the distance.
8. (nevertheless)
Andrew had been an accomplished mountaineer for fifteen years; nevertheless, he
soon developed astonishing efficiency in kayaking.
9. (however)
In 2005 he was named Australian Geographic Society Adventurer of the Year;
however, he remained restless.
10. (consequently)
He followed his nomination with a three man, 1000 km sea kayaking expedition
along the Antarctic Peninsula in 2006; consequently, his wife Vicky fretted
privately with every challenge.

21
4.8 Identify sentence clarity
1. (a) Our expectation was to finalize the contract in three months.
(b) We expected to finalize the contract in three months. 
2. (a) A report from the Environment Committee received study by the Prime Minister.
(b) The Prime Minister studied a report from the Environment Committee. 
3. (a) After receiving complaints from several people, the police investigated the case of
stealing copyrighted electronic material. 
(b) An investigation of the case of stealing copyrighted electronic material was
initiated after the police received complaints from several people.
4. (a) The Member of Parliament voted against the bill because he believed that the
Dairy industry was burdened by unnecessary government regulation. 
(b) The reason for the MP’s negative vote in regard to the bill was his belief that the
dairy industry was already burdened with unnecessary government regulation.
5. (a) The hiring of unskilled workers to fill the vacant positions necessitates an
investigation by the agency.
(b) The agency must find out why unskilled workers were hired to fill the vacant
positions. 

4.9 Revise sentences to align meaning with subjects and verbs

1.b, 2.b, 3.b, 4.b, 5.b, 6.b, 7.a, 8.a, 9.b, 10.b

4.10 Identify active and passive verbs

The active voice emphasizes the doer of the action. 
Active constructions have a more direct and 
dramatic effect.
Active constructions use more words than passive 
constructions.
We use the passive voice when the doer of the action 
is unknown or unimportant.
We use the passive voice to focus attention on the 
action itself.
Most sentences in the passive voice cannot easily be 
turned into the active voice.
It is easier to use the active voice than the passive 

22
voice.
The passive voice is used in more formal situations. 

Active Passive
1. According to scientists, a permanent base on the moon must be 
built.
2. Such a moon base is required to support space exploration. 
3. Materials to build space stations can be mined on the moon. 
4. One plan calls for an active moon base by 2010. 
5. Moon dust will be used to cover people and machinery. 
6. Such shelters are needed for protection from rays coming from 
outer space.
7. Moon dust could be baked to form building blocks and cement. 
8. All this sounds very difficult, of course. 
9. Ideally, the moon base could become self-sufficient. 
10. Some say this might never be accomplished. 

4.11 Active and passive verb forms

1. (p), the majority of teachers prefer homemade teaching material

2. (a), it is argued by the author of the article that textbooks tend to be eliminated
altogether by several instructors.

3. (a), because homemade teaching materials are bulky, storage problems are often
caused.

4. (a), it is often thought by teachers that textbooks are more accessible and easier to use
than homemade materials.
and/or:
textbooks are often thought to be more accessible and easier to use.

5. (p), although textbooks have limitations, teachers who use them can achieve many
objectives.

6. (p), according to the author of the article, teachers should embed extra-curricular
activities into fl teaching and textbooks.

7. (a), in this way the relationship between the foreign language and reality is better
understood by students.

23
8. (a), as far as writing is concerned, several and diverse problems are encountered by
students.

9. (a), the use of additional material is encouraged because of this diversity

10. (a), activities which are both instructive and rewarding should thus be employed by
teachers

4.12 Revise sentences to eliminate passive voice constructions

1. Lions kill wildebeests more often than any other prey.
2. One or more family groups form a pride of lions.
3. Pride members often cooperate when they hunt.
4. One lion sometimes chases its prey towards another waiting in ambush.
5. In the past people often thought that lions killed freely and easily. 
6. Scientists have observed, however, that occasionally intended victims have killed
lions. 
7. Once a crocodile killed and devoured a lion.
8. Scientists observing wildlife will conduct more experiments. 
9. They must study and monitor animal life carefully. 
10. From such studies they can draw important conclusions regarding animal habits. 

NOTE: PASSIVE VOICE IS PREFERABLE IN THE SENTENCES I’VE TICKED

MAINLY BECAUSE THE EMPHASIS IS ON THE ACTION RATHER THAN THE
AGENT—THE AGENT MAY BE UNKNOWN , UNIMPORTANT OR EVEN IMPLIED.

4.13 Revise sentences to eliminate deferred subjects

A) ALL: yes
B) 1. Twenty years elapsed between the two world wars.
2. Some say that television is to blame for poor reading skills today.
3. In her essay she points out that there are not many similarities in the two novels
by Jane Austen.
4. He argued that Russia would again grow as a world power
5. The schoolboys caused a lot of noise in their party last night.

4.14 Clarify indistinct sentences

1.b, 2.b, 3.b, 4.a, 5.b, 6.a, 7.b, 8.b, 9.a, 10.b

4.15 Identify subordinate clauses

1. Spanish explorers, who came to America seeking gold, discovered the potato plant.
2. Because it contains a large number of nutrients, the potato is now grown in many
countries.

24
3. Since an acre of potatoes produces twice as much food as two acres of grain, it is an
efficient crop.
4. The average annual world crop is 291 million tons even though half of it is actually
fed to farm animals.
5. The potato can survive almost wherever humans can.
6. In the jungles, however, where humidity causes diseases deadly to potato crops, the
potatoes cannot grow.
7. When petrol prices were still very low, automaker Henry Ford predicted that potatoes
would be used to make fuel.
8. Researchers have discovered that one acre of potatoes can produce 1,200 gallons of
fuel a year.
9. Currently, the former Soviet Union produces one-third of the word’s potatoes while
the United States produces just five percent.
10. Although consumption rates vary in both countries, potatoes seem to be everyone’s
favorite food.

4.16 Use subordination

1. Although Japan was a powerful nation in the 17th century, its leaders isolated it from
the rest of the world.
2. This policy lasted for more than two hundred years until Japan opened itself to trade
in 1854.
3. Even though many Japanese resented the presence of Americans, some Japanese
leaders yielded to military pressure.
4. In 1867 there was a rebellion which restored the Japanese Emperor to power.
5. The Emperor, who wanted his nation to stand on an equal footing to the West,
supported many reforms. / As the Emperor wanted his nation to stand on an equal
footing to the West, he supported many reforms.

4.17 Achieve sentence clarity through subordination

1.b, 2.a, 3.b, 4.b, 5.b, 6.a, 7.b, 8.b

4.18 Revise to eliminate excessive subordination

SENTENCE 1 REVISED:
Persistence counts. James Finn Garner isn’t resentful even though his Politically Correct
Bedtime Stories, a best-seller for over a year, was turned down by many publishers. He
struggled at two jobs while he wrote the book.

SENTENCE 2 REVISED:
Many people in certain cultures assume that college educated people should never work
with their hands, but this attitude often deters capable young people from seeking
nontraditional careers.
NOTE: THE REST OF THE SENTENCES DO NOT NEED REVISING BUT
OPTIONALLY WE CAN ASK STUDENTS TO BREAK THEM DOWN.

25
4.19 Use subordination in a paragraph
In India, girls from 12-25 admire the ideal of the independent, feminist Western
girl even though it is looked down upon by traditional families who hold on to the old
ways of the world. Indian girls buy Star Dust as they want to escape into the magical
world of freedom and get away from cultural expectations. Star Dust advertises things
from the Western world which function as bridges to the ideal of Europeanized behavior
and conduct. Popular advertisements, romantic stories and interesting articles about
fashion are included in the magazine which makes it very appealing. Even though Star
Dust is quite expensive, many Indian girls save money to buy it because it is their
connection to the other world.

4.19 Join fragments and subordinate clauses

1. Peter was sacked after two years of employment.
2. The car was not properly serviced which caused Mark to have an accident.
3. He had to file a number of complaints before his tax refund arrived.
4. The government has taken no measures against sexist discrimination at work although
many women…
5. If you change your mind, give me a ring.
6. The company held him responsible for bad marketing policies even though he
resigned.
7. He asked the children to be quiet before he shut the door.

4.20 Eliminate sentence fragments

1, 4, 6, 8, 10

2. The city will build a hospital where the park is.

3. The students who registered early got the classes they wanted.
5. The chemistry teacher is looking for a lab assistant who is dependable. / The
chemistry teacher is looking for a dependable lab assistant.
7. The albatross, like most sea-birds, lays one egg a year and both parents help to care
for the single chick when it hatches in February or March.
9. Mars has two satellites, Phobos and Deimos which are both closer to Mars than the
Moon to Earth.

4.22 Edit a passage to eliminate sentence fragments

The life of Tommy Sandys is told in two novels: Sentimental Tommy (1896),
subtitled “The Story of his Boyhood”, and Tommy and Grizel (1900). The story of
Tommy in his twenties. [,Which is the story of Tommy in his twenties]. Tommy is
sentimental for the reasons outlined above: he values emotion for its own sake rather than
for its appropriateness for the reality of the situation in hand. On one occasion in his
boyhood, Tommy acts as a letter writer for the members of his family. They are unable to
write themselves. [because they are unable to write themselves]. Forced to take on the
emotional conditions of others, Tommy revels in the opportunity to express powerful

26
sentiments. Not really belonging to him. [which do not really belong to him].Not having
the right to hold them. [and which he has no right to hold]. Tommy displays emotion. Not
because he feels that way about the situation at hand [not because he feels that way about
the situation at hand]—he has no stake in it. His emotion is, rather, purely love of
emotion itself. The ethical weakness of sentimentality. [which is the ethical weakness of
sentimentality].

4.23 Evaluate intentional sentence fragments

1) After living in Athens for fifteen years, Joan longed to see her hometown again. The
courthouse square, the neatly trimmed lawn, the tidy small house in which she had
grown up. 
2) One of the things that make the French Revolution so confusing to read about is the
great number of names that appear on every page, and disappear without a trace.
Worse than a Russian novel. And the reason for this is that for almost ten years it
produced no great men, except perhaps Robespierre. 
3) Archaeologists are interested in the clothing of our ancestors. They have discovered
hundreds of sandal designs. Each usually representative of a particular culture at a
particular time. However, other types of shoes were also worn.
4) Boots were first used by soldiers. The Assyrians created a calf-high laced leather
boot. The sole was reinforced with metal. Enabling the Assyrians to walk and fight in
relative comfort.
5) The lunch was a yuppie cardiologist’s dream. Sprouts and lobster with spaghetti. 

NOTE: FRAGMENTS IN THE PARTICULAR SENTENCES ACHIEVE EMPHASIS

DRAWING THE ATTENTION OF THE READER TO THE DETAIL FRAGMENTED
FROM THE REST OF THE SENTENCE.

4.24 Identify and eliminate fused sentences

1. At the time, Jacques Lacan was writing for the Minotaure; he was exasperated with
his medical studies BUT he was still interested in the philosophical topics of his day.
2. This brought him into contact with Pierre Verret who was a medical student looking
for some private coaching to make ends meet.
3. Lacan wanted to get a certificate in logic from the Sorbonne, so he asked Verret to
instruct him in the broad outlines of the subject.
4. Verret was keen on instructing Lacan, but, unfortunately, he persisted in asking
questions out of the blue.
5. He was interested in everything; he almost conducted the lesson himself.
6. Lacan never sought any political commitment for himself; however, he did follow the
battle over Freud and Marxism that raged in 1933 among the communists and the
surrealists. 
7. In one such meeting, a young philosopher called Jean Audard, was fiercely
challenged by Georges Politzer, and the two men came to blows.
8. Lacan wasn’t present, but he read Audard’s speech and thought he would like to meet
him.

27
9. Audard’s text was very original, even though at the time he was opposed by the
followers of Marxism.
10. Lacan was right to widen his perspectives; otherwise, he would be confined for ever
to an academic understanding of Freud.

4.25 Repair comma splices

1. The end of voyage party concluded sedately, and passengers retired to their bunks.
2. Captain Gibb had calculated his position at 50 nautical miles south of the Victorian
Coast, but he was uneasy in the heavy mist.
3. The Captain gave orders to shorten sail, so Loch Ard stole forward in the hazy
darkness.
4. Suddenly, at 4.00 a.m., Captain Gibb looked past a lifting curtain of sea mist; he
caught sight of sea-bitten cliffs, towering and pale, about 1 km from his vessel’s bow.
5. The captain sprang to action: he called all hands on deck and ordered complex
settings of sail in a desperate bid to manoeuver his ship back out to sea.
6. Maritime historians describe his actions as exemplary; his seamanship proved no
match for the pull of the lee shore.
7. Loch Ard was dragged sternwards towards the dizzying cliffs of Mutton Bird Island,
but, she struck a jutting reef.
8. The deck became a chaos of falling rocks and spars—passengers and crew were
swept into the turbulent turf.

4.26 Use subordination to eliminate comma splices

1. Modern astronomy encompasses far more than stargazing because information is
gleaned from every nook and cranny of the universe by all means at our disposal.
2. The picture created of things ‘out there’ is remarkably concrete and cogent as it
encompasses the entire spread of place and time.
3. The ancient Greeks were completely taken in by the flat-Earth illusion until about the
sixth century BC Anaximander came up with the surprising idea that Earth is roughly
cylindrical in form.
4. In the early 200s BC, the observant Eratosthenes spotted sunlight pouring directly
down a vertical well near the Nile when he knew with certainty that it was casting
oblique shadows 850 km north in Alexandria.
5. This observation enabled him to estimate the diameter of the Earth so that his value
was amazingly close to the 12,756 km found in today’s measurements.
6. Although astronomers fiddled with the idea of a heliocentric universe for centuries, it
took the remarkable Polish astronomer and mathematician, Nicolaus Coppernicus, to
finally end these assumptions.
7. Copernicus put forward a mathematical model of Earth where he showed it as an
orbiting, spinning third planet from the Sun.
8. Even though Copernicus’ theories were rejected by the majority of his contemporary
scientists, they were finally published one year after his death.
9. Much later, Galileo Galilei built on Copernicus’ ideas because he conceived of the
Earth as orbiting around the Sun as well as itself.

28
10. Modern scientists have developed and extended former theories even if they rely on
them as a sound basis for their experimentation.

4.27 Avoid mixed constructions

1. A red moon can occur during a total lunar eclipse and the reason is the scattering of
light by the Earth’s atmosphere.
2. Even though the Moon is deep within the Earth’s shadow during the eclipse, scattered
red light finds its way onto the lunar surface to give the appearance of a ‘blood
moon’.
3. Under normal circumstances the moon looks white, with a few pale grey markings.
4. These grey areas reveal themselves to be smooth circular blotches if you focus
binoculars on them.
5. These grey patches have also been known as “maria”, but we now know that they are
low-lying volcanic plains.
6. On the airless Moon, they are as dry as dust, but they are geologically much younger
than the white mountainous regions.
7. Color enhancement techniques can be used to exaggerate slight differences in grey
tones providing a powerful tool for mapping the geology of the lunar surface.
8. With this method, the grayish “maria” transform into delicate shades of blue or
brown, depending on the varying levels of titanium and iron in the basalt that fills
them.
9. The highland areas are lighter in color, and show shades of yellow, pink and pale blue
10. Once again the differences are due to geological composition, but there may also be
ageing effects due to the bombardment by subatomic particles from the Sun.

4.28 Identify subject-verb agreement

The fine, supple hairs of stinging trees…are…(be) like miniature hypodermic
needles, which…penetrate…(penetrate) the victim’s skin and…inject…(inject) their toxic
contents. Even gentle contact with a stinging tree…causes ...(cause) itching, followed by
a severe prickling effect and intense pain that…persist…(persist) for days and sometimes
weeks. Humans…continue…(continue) to feel stinging sensations whenever the hairs --
which are so tiny that they often remain lodged in the skin--…are stimulated…(be
stimulated), either by movement or skin contractions due to changes in temperature.
The precise reaction…depends…(depend) on how many hairs have pierced the
skin, and where. The toxin, along with its chemical type,…is thought…(be thought) to
mimic the effects of a neurotoxin. If stung, each person…suffers…(suffer) from sweating
and intense pain, dilated blood vessels and swelling of the lymph glands. If inhaled,
hairs…induce…(induce) violent fits of sneezing, and even bleeding from the nasal
passages.
Chemical analysis over the past 50 years…has yielded …(have yielded) just one
pain producing compound, known as moroidin, but it’s believed there is a cocktail of
toxins which…has not been identified…(be identified), yet. Learning how these
compounds…work…(work) could advance our understanding of the mechanisms of pain
– indeed moroidin…is currently being investigated…(be currently investigated) for
potential anti-cancer properties. “Investigating plant venoms like that of the stinging
tree…produces…(produce) medicinal products of incredible benefit,” said Dr. David

29
Caldicott of London university. His research committee...is dedicated…(be dedicated) to
investigating as many of these medicinal herbs as possible.

4.29 Edit a text for subject-verb agreement

Vanity Fair is a landmark in the development of European realism and functions
as a reaction against the ostentation and hero-worship of high romanticism. It may be that
without the inspiration of Thackeray’s novel, Tolstoy would never have written his own
realistic masterpiece. Yet War and Peace retains an attachment to military heroism and
blind patriotism that Vanity Fair has outgrown. Vanity Fair is also a love-story, with its
roots firmly set in Thackeray’s own longing for a younger, married woman, and this
distinguishes it from whatever he had written before. Its title invites comparison with
Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress. The difference between the two works is glaring, yet
Vanity Fair is permeated by a contempt for worldly things—for titles and nobility and
celebrity, for glitter and fame and wealth—which makes it as intense and more
knowledgeable than Bunyan’s, and is not counterbalanced, as his is, by other wordly
spiritual fervor. Thackeray shows how envy, hatred, resentment and self-regard govern
human behavior, bringing the ethics of the battlefield into the drawing room, the
servants’ kitchen, the school playground. This affects how we view Becky Sharp—one of
his supreme creations, who embodies much of his own wit and satire. For whereas Becky
might appear monstrous in a novel peopled by paragons, in Vanity Fair she seems not far
worse than those she exploits, and she has the excuse, as they have not, of having to fight
for survival. But it is Dobbin who most radically transforms the novel, and whose advent
necessitated the drastic rewriting of the early chapters. Modest, loyal, upright, self-
denying, ashamed at others’ shamelessness, Dobbin, the unheroic hero, becomes
Thackeray’s answer to romantic posturing. He is something new in English, indeed the
world, literature, strikingly unlike the heroes of classical epic or Renaissance Drama and
he shows Thackeray accomplishing one of the most difficult of literary feats—the
creation of a character who is both virtuous and likeable.

4.30 Understand use of pronoun case

1. I, 2. me, 3. he, 4. him, 5.me, 6. he (He renames this, so the subjective case is
required), 7. I, (I is the correct case here because it renames it, the subject and so the
subjective case is required), 8. she, (Again, she renames the winner, the subject and so
the subjective case is correct, here, too), 9.I (*Students must be alerted to the fact that
example 9 may in fact have both options each conveying a different message: a) My
sister photographs landscapes more than I = My sister photographs landscapes more
than I photograph landscapes.
b) My sister photographs landscapes more than me= My sister photographs landscapes
more than she photographs me), 10. his.

4.31 Identify correct pronoun case

1. I, me, 2. him, he, 3. them, their, 4. he, him, 5. (he, him).6. (his, him) 7. (their, them).8.
(his, him) 9. (he, him) (his, him) 10. (he and his partner, him and his partner)

4.32 Eliminate errors in the use of who and whom

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Whom , who ,whom , who , who , whomever ,who ,who .

4.33 Revise sentences for pronoun agreement

1. Dr. Peterson and Dr. Mackenzie must decide whether they wish to participate…
2. The Bronte sisters knew they would have trouble….
3. Reading the proto-feminist text A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, written by
Mary Wollstonecraft in 1792, several students decided to extend their research
into…
4. People are always transported to nineteenth-century industrial London when they
read Charles Dickens’s Oliver Twist.
5. Simone de Beauvoir favors the idea of equal rights between men and women but,
occasionally, she overlooks differences of class and race limiting her support to
white, middle-class women only.

4.34 Eliminate agreement errors with indefinite pronouns

1. None of the students volunteered time for the fundraising event organised by the
Red Cross at the end of the semester.
2. Everybody should be able to run a business without getting high interest loans from
banks.
3. Neither of them has begun doctoral research yet, despite being funded by the
University.
4. Each researcher is entitled to a period of four years for completing a dissertation.
5. Someone was granted a prize amounting to £ 2,000 for conducting a really innovative
research on the effect of nuclear reactors on the water supply.

4.35 Eliminate errors in pronoun reference

1. their, 2. its, 3. their, 4. their, 5. its, 6. them, 7. themselves, 8. its, 9. its, 10. their/them

4.36 Edit a passage for pronoun agreement

Him, Scientists/Medical researchers, his, their, Pharmaceutical companies, their, they,
Painkillers, they, it, they, them, them

4.37 Recognise parallel elements

Grid 1: clearly, eloquently, persuasively
Grid 2: praised by critics, embraced by common readers
Grid 3: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times
1. Optimism in outlook and egotism in behaviour – those are essential qualities for a
leader.
2. The best teachers are patient, erudite and keep an open mind.
3. The lawyers presented their case eloquently and effectively.
4. The school board’s objectives are clear: to hire the best teaching staff, to create the
best classroom facilities and to prepare the students for the next technological
advancements.
5. Pope was a poet of the mind; Byron wrote for the heart.

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6. The city council is as likely to adopt the measure as opposing it.
7. Smiling takes fewer muscles than frowning.
8. Criminals are imprisoned for two reasons: to punish them and for the protection of
law abiding citizens.
9. When you open a new computer program, it’s easy to feel overwhelmed by the
interface, frustrated by the vague documentation and not to know what to do next.
10. We spoke not only to the President but also to the Prime Minister of the African
country.

2. The best teachers are patient, erudite and open-minded.

5. Pope was a poet of the mind; Byron was a poet of the heart.
6. The city council is as likely to adopt the measure as to oppose it.
8. Criminals are imprisoned for two reasons: for their punishment and for the protection
of law-abiding citizens.
9. When you open a new computer program, it’s easy to feel overwhelmed by the
interface, frustrated by the vague documentation and confused about what to do next.

4.38 Varying sentence length

1. In order to gain the knowledge she needed she became a governess for doctors’
families and spent her spare time studying medical books.
2. After she was turned down by eleven medical schools, in 1848 she was finally
accepted by Geneva Medical College in New York in which the Faculty let the
students vote whether or not to accept her and they voted her in as a joke.
3. Being a good student, Blackwell received her degree in 1849 but she could not find
work in U.S. hospitals, so she went to Europe.
4. In 1851 Blackwell returned to New York to open her own practice but, as noone
would rent her office space, she bought her own house which became the New York
Infirmary for Women and Children.
5. The Infirmary was the first all-female hospital in the world as it had an all-female
staff and offered internships to women medical students.

4.39 Identify correct parallel construction

1. Major Banks and credit companies earn millions of pounds every year from people
who indulge in the practice of buying now and paying the bills later.
2. Widely accepted both in Europe and the US, credit cards enable consumers to travel
with comfort, to dine at the best restaurants, and to purchase the most expensive and
fashionable items.
3. Nowadays credit cards are used not only to purchase overpriced goods but also to buy
essential services.
4. For instance, several hospitals advertise their healthcare facilities inviting patients to
pay using either their Master Card or their Visa.
5. Naturally, market researchers complain that the ease of using credit cards has
exceeded the ease of using cash.

4.40 Revise faulty parallelism

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1) to protect, 2) Guard, 3) o.k.! No changes necessary, 4) patenting, 5)
claiming, 6) to discourage, 7) Sharing, 8) to claim, 9) o.k ! no changes necessary, 10) put
to good use and shared.

4.41 Punctuate parallel elements

1. Virtually all milk consumed throughout the world nowadays, is pasteurized,
homogenized, and made to last for a long period of time.

2. During pasteurization, milk is heated to destroy disease causing organisms, bacteria

or, other elements which promote souring.

3. Developed and named after Louis Pasteur in the 1860s, the process of pasteurization
helped control the spread of tuberculosis, diphtheria, and rheumatic fever caused by
germs.

4. Today, pasteurization may seem more a precaution, rather than a necessity, but even
with modern chemical methods, some nonpasteurized milk would undoubtedly
become contaminated.

5. Unlike pasteurization, homogenization is not so much a necessity, but rather a

convenience.

6. Whether it is actually necessary or not, homogenization is widely used in Europe, the

US, and most other countries around the world.

7. Homogenized milk is blended so thoroughly that its cream will not separate, thicken,
and rise to the top.

8. Long before they knew about the pasteurization and homogenization processes,
people consumed milk; but they also used it to produce cheese, yogurt, butter, and a
wide variety of other products.

4.42 Relationship between tenses within a sentence

1. , 2. , 3. , 4. , 5. , 6. describes, 7. had/had had, 8. , 9. , 10. , 11. , 12. ,
13. , 14. retires, 15. opposed, 16. have advanced, 17. are, 18. alert/have alerted

4.43 Establish a verb sequence

1. Don’t have to, 2. works, 3. hear, 4. No change necessary, 5. disappear, 6. Points out, 7.
works, 8. repeat, 9. makes, 10. is

4.44 Change the governing tense in a text (present to past)

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Failed, listened, did, failed to appreciate [that we integrate]*, did not need, meant, had,
tried, pointed out, was, worked, was did not contextualize/prepare, tested, had been,
might well have developed, would be/was, meant, needed, was not, could

* IN MY OPINION, THE TENSE OF THIS CLAUSE MUST BE RETAINED

BECAUSE IT REFERS TO A GENERAL, UNCHANGEABLE TRUTH WHICH IS
BEST DESCRIBED BY THE PRESENT FORM OF THE VERB. STUDENTS,
HOWEVER, MUST BE MADE AWARE OF THIS PECULIARITY.

4.45 Edit a text for tense consistency (past to present)

does not please, argues, are, is, cannot be, is, has led, has been, lies, is, is, concerns, is,
repeat, move on, are, is, is, cannot lead

4.46 Use past tense and past-participle verb forms

The last days of my childhood were also the last days of my village. I belonged to
that generation which saw, by chance, the end of a thousand years’ life. The change came
late to our Cotswold valley, didn’t really show itself till the late 1920s; I was twelve by
then, but during that handful of years I witnessed the whole thing happen.
Myself, my family, my generation were born in a world of silence; a world of
hard work and necessary patience, of backs bent to the ground, hands massaging the
crops, of waiting on weather and growth; of villages like ships in the empty landscapes
and the long walking distances between them; of white narrow roads, rutted by hooves
and cartwheels, innocent of oil or petrol, down which people passed rarely, and almost
never for pleasure, and the horse was the fastest thing moving. Man and horse were all
the power we had—abetted by levers and pulleys. But the horse was king and almost
everything grew around him; fodder, smithies, stables, paddocks, distances, and the
rhythm of our days. His eight miles an hour was the limit of our movements, as it had
been since the days of the Romans. That eight miles an hour was life and death, the size
of our world, our prison.
This was what we were born to, and all we knew at first. Then, to the scream of
the horse, the change began. The brass-lamped motor car came coughing up the road,
followed by the clamorous charabanc; the solid-tyred bus climbed the dusty hills and
more people came and went. Chickens and dogs were the early sacrifices, falling
demented beneath the wheels. The old folk, too, had strokes and seizures, faced by
speeds beyond comprehension. Then scarlet motor bikes, the size of five barred gates
began to appear in the village, on which our youth roared like rockets up the two-minute
hills, then spent weeks making repairs and adjustments.
These appearances did not immediately alter our lives; the cars were freaks and
rarely seen, the motor bikes mostly in pieces, we used the charabancs only once a year,
and our buses at first were experiments. Meanwhile, Lew Ayers, wearing a bowler hat,
ran/run his wagonette to Stroud twice a week. The carriage held six, and the fare was
twopence, but most people preferred to walk. Mrs. West, from Sheepscombe, ran a cart
every day, and would carry your parcels for a penny. But most of us still did the journey
on foot, heads down to the west Welsh winds, ignoring the carters—whom we thought
extortionate—and spending a long hard day at our shopping.

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4.47 Match verb forms to a governing tense
were ,had ,had ,followed worked, was ,had, was ,managed ,were ,had ,were ,were given,
was ,was ,was could barely manage, got ,was, seemed, seemed, fell.

4.48 Correct shifts in verb tense

Most discussions have limited affective factors to personality characteristics,
attitudes and emotional responses to the language learning process. The major problem of
research in this area is that data gathered by introspective methods using questionnaires
and self-report often do not seem to agree with observed behavior. Better instruments are
needed. It is therefore difficult to make generalizations. However, this in itself is a useful
insight for teachers given that sweeping generalizations about learners are not
uncommon in these areas. for example, there is a widely held view that extrovert learners
are likely to be more successful than introverted learners, possibly because they are more
assertive, more willing to experiment and take risks, and more able to make the social
contracts they need to practice language. This view, however, is not conclusively
supported by the findings of research. Furthermore, we need to keep the exigencies of the
classroom situation clearly in mind. It may well be the case that extrovert students
benefit from oral work in small groups where their assertiveness enables them to
dominate and their willingness to take risks facilitates practice, but in a whole-class mode
of learning, the extroverts may be silenced by an irritated teacher. Perhaps the important
implication for the teacher is to balance these personality differences by ensuring an
equal share of attention and opportunity to contribute.

4.49 Edit a text for parallelism and shifts in verb tense

Another cause of the decline in marital happiness is, surprisingly, children.
Children tend to put a damper on marital bliss. Couples who remain childless report
higher levels of marital satisfaction than do those with children. They are better educated
and more likely to live in cities, and the wives are more committed to their careers. They
have more savings and investments, of course, and are more apt to buy an expensive
home in their fifties. Marital happiness sinks with the arrival of the first baby, plunges
even further when the first child reaches school age, and drops further when the child
reaches the teenage years. Husbands begin to feel better with their marriages once the
children have turned eighteen, but wives don’t feel better about heir marriages until after
the children leave home. Yet having and raising children are two of the major purposes
of the family, its raison d’être. If one of the chief purposes of the family is to maintain
both gender inequality and gender difference between the parents, then its other chief
purpose is to ensure that those gendered identities are imparted to the next generation. It
is in the family that the seeds of gender difference are planted, that we first understand
that being a man or a woman, a boy or a girl, has different, and unequal, meanings.

4.50 Edit a text for use of verb forms

If I had known it, the whole future must have lain all the time along those
Berkhamsted streets. The High street was as wide as many a market square, but its broad
dignity was abused after the first great war by the New Cinema under a green Moorish
dome, tiny enough but it seemed to us then the height of pretentious luxury and dubious

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taste. My father, who was by that time headmaster of Berkhamsted school, once allowed
his senior boys to go there for a special performance of the first Tarzan movie, under the
false impression that it was an educational film of anthropological interest, and ever after
he regarded the cinema with a sense of disillusion and suspicion. The High Street
contained at ‘our end’ a half timbered Tudor photographer’s shop (from the windows the
faces of the locals looked out in wedded groups, bouqueted and bemused like prize
oxen) and the great flinty Norman church where the helmet of some old Duke of
Cornwall hung unremarked on a pillar like a bowler hat in a hall. Below lay the Grand
Junction canal with the slow-moving painted barges and remote gypsy children, the
watercress beds, the hillocks of the old castle surrounded by a dry moat full of cow-
parsley (it had been built, so they said, by Chaucer, and in the reign of Henry III it was
besieged successfully by the French). The faint agreeable smell of coal dust blew up from
the railway, and everywhere were those curious individual Berkhamsted faces which I
feel I could recognize now anywhere in the world: pointed faces like the knaves on
playing cards, with a slyness about the eyes, an unsuccessful cunning.

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