Communication Theory-1-Lab (15EC2205) : Prepared by Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao Dr. S. Lakshminarayana, Dept. of ECE

Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept.
of ECE
Communication Theory-1-Lab
(15EC2205)
Prepared
by
Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao
Professor,
Dr. S. Lakshminarayana,
Professor,
Dept. of ECE
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

KL University, Vaddeswaram
2017-18
Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE
Laboratory Course Guidelines and Policies:

1. Each lab period will start with a brief quiz that may cover material from current or
previous laboratories or course lectures. Therefore, the lab should be read before
coming to the section meeting.
2. You are required to be in attendance at the beginning of each lab. A quiz will be
given during the first ten minutes. You will receive a zero for the quiz if you miss it.
3. You must stay until the end of your lab section.
4. If you completely miss the lab, leaving your lab partner without a partner, you will
have to do the lab completely on your own. In addition, the absence penalty will be
applied to your score.
5. Your lab report is due at the beginning of your lab section, before you take the quiz.
Late lab reports will be penalized ten percent per week late.
6. Each student need to submit individual lab report.
7. Reports must be written neatly.
8. Marks will be subtracted for sloppy appearance.
Laboratory Ethics: Students are expected to behave ethically both in and out of the lab.
Unethical behavior includes, but is not limited to, the following:
1. Possession of another person’s laboratory solutions from the current or previous
years. Reference to, or use of another person’s laboratory solutions from the current
or previous years.
2. Submission of work that is not done by your laboratory group.
3. Allowing another person to copy your laboratory solutions or work.
4. Cheating on quizzes.
5. The EC2205L laboratory experience is meant to strengthen and deepen the
student’s understanding of basic concepts taught in the EC2205 lectures and to help
the student develop practical skills in applying the concepts taught in the EC2205
course.
The rules of laboratory ethics are designed to facilitate these goals. We emphasize that
that laboratory faculty assistants are available throughout the week to help the student
both understand the basic concepts and answer the questions being asked in the
laboratory exercises. By performing the laboratories independently, students will likely
learn more and improve their performance in the course as a whole. At the professor’s
discretion, unethical behavior will result in a failing grade for the entire course, a
reduction of the course letter grade, or a zero score. In addition, it is the responsibility of
the student to make sure that the content of their graded laboratories is not distributed to
other students.
List of Experiments
1. Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation 4-
2. DSB-SC Modulation and Demodulation
3. Frequency Modulation and Demodulation using PLL
4. Pulse Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation -.
5. Pulse Width Modulation and Demodulation
6. Pulse Position Modulation and Demodulation
7. Sample and Hold
8. ASK Modulation and Demodulation
9. FSK Modulation and Demodulation
10. BPSK Modulation and Demodulation
11. ADC and DAC

1. Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation
Objectives:
1. To observe the operation of a linear integrated circuit function generator.
2. To construct and study the Amplitude Modulation using XR2206.
3. To examine the time displays of an AM signal.
4. To measure the percentage modulation, and the percentage of total power in
both sidebands and in the carrier versus the modulation index.
5. To investigate the use (& limitation) of envelope detection in demodulating AM
signals.
Pre-Lab Work:
1. Study the data sheet of XR2206 and understand the functions of each pin.
2. Study the basic theory of Amplitude modulation and envelope detection
techniques. Time and Frequency analysis of AM waves.
3. Understanding the circuit diagrams of AM generation and envelope detection.
4. Understanding the data sheets of components used in the experiment.
5. Computer simulations (Multisim / pSpice) are performed and the objectives are
obtained prior to the hardware experiment.
Output Amplitude versus Input Control Voltage Characteristics of XR2206

The amplitude versus input voltage characteristics of the XR-2206 linear
integrated circuit function generator is examined here. The output amplitude of
the XR-2206 function generator can be varied by applying a control voltage to pin
1. The output amplitude varies linearly with the control voltage for values within
4 Volts of V+/2. The schematic diagram for the function generator circuit used in
this section is shown in Fig 1.
Brief Theory:
AM Modulation: Amplitude Modulation is defined as a system of modulation in which

the amplitude of the carrier wave c(t )  Ac cos ct is varied linearly with the
instantaneous amplitude of the message signal m(t ) . The terms Ac is the amplitude
and c is the frequency of the carrier wave respectively. The standard form of amplitude
modulated (AM) wave is defined by

s(t )  Ac [1  ka m(t )]cos 2 f ct (1)
where Ka  1/ Ac is a constant is called amplitude sensitivity of the modulator. The term
Ac [1  Ka m(t )] is referred to as envelope of the AM wave.
Fig.1: XR-2206 functional block diagram

Consider a modulating wave m(t ) that consists of a single tone or frequency
component. That is m(t )  Am cos 2 f mt , where Am is the amplitude and f m is the

frequency of the modulating wave respectively. Then the AM wave is described by
s(t )  Ac [1   cos 2 f mt ]cos 2 fct (2)
where   ka Am  Am / Ac is called modulation factor or percentage modulation. To
avoid envelop distortion due to over modulation,  must be kept below unity.
Let Amax and Amin denote the maximum and minimum values of the envelop of the
modulated wave,
Amax Ac (1   ) Amax  Amin
Then   (3)
Amin Ac (1   ) Amax  Amin
With this notation we can write the AM wave s(t ) as
s(t )  Ac cos 2 f ct   Ac cos 2 f mt cos 2 f ct
 Ac  Ac (4)
 Ac cos 2 fct  cos(c  m )t  cos(c  m )t
2 2
The total power in the AM modulated wave is given by Pt  Pc  PLSB  PUSB , where
 2  Ac2  2 Ac2
Pt  Pc 1   , Pc  , PLSB  PUSB Pc  are the total power, carrier power,
 2  2 8
lower and upper sideband powers respectively.
The transmission bandwidth of the AM wave is exactly equal to the twice of the message
bandwidth. Transmission bandwidth = USB - LSB = ( f  W )  ( f  W )  2 W Hz, where
‘W’’ is message signal bandwidth. In the case if single tone signal
m(t )  Am cos 2 f mt the bandwidth is 2 f m Hz. Fig.2 shows the circuit diagram of
Amplitude Modulation using XR2206.
Fig 2. Circuit diagram of Amplitude Modulation
AM Demodulation: The process of extracting a base band signal from the modulated
signal is known as demodulation. AM signal with large carrier are detected by using the
envelope detector. The envelope detector employs the circuit that extract the envelop of
the AM wave. The envelope of the AM wave is the base band signal. However, a low
level modulated signal can be detected by using square law detector in which a device
operating in the non linear region is used to detect the base band signal. A diode
operating in a linear region of its characteristics can extract the envelop detector. it is
very simple and less expensive AM demodulation technique. Fig.3 illustrate the circuit
diagram of envelope detector.
Fig 3. Circuit diagram of Envelope Detection.
Procedure
1. Construct the circuit shown in Fig 2.
2. Adjust the amplitude of the control voltage VC to 0 V.
3. Reduce the amplitude of the audio signal generator output voltage to 0 V.
4. Calculate the function generator free running frequency.
5. Adjust preset (pin13 and 14) until a sine wave within minimum distortion is
observed at Vout.
6. Increase the control voltage to + 5 V dc.
7. Increase the amplitude of signal generator output voltage to 3 V p  p at 1
kHz.
8. Adjust the amplitude of audio signal generator output voltage until an AM
envelope with 100% modulation is observed at Vout .
9. Sketch the waveform observed in step 8.

10. Describe the waveform sketched in step 9 in terms of frequency content,
amplitude, shape, and repetition rate.
11. Set the amplitude of audio signal generator output voltage to 1.5 V p  p and
determine the percentage modulation of output envelope using the following

formula.
Vmax  Vmin

Vmax  Vmin
Where  modulation index

Vmax = maximum peak-to-peak envelope amplitude (volts)
Vmin = minimum peak-to-peak envelope amplitude (volts)

12. Make the necessary connections between the AM modulator and the
oscilloscope to display a trapezoidal pattern.
13. Vary the amplitude and frequency of the audio signal generator output
voltage and describe with effect varying them has on the AM envelope.
14. For demodulation, connect the demodulation circuit as shown in Fig.3.
15. Observe the demodulated out for every modulating signal input as above. If
necessary vary the 22K potentiometer for distortion less output.
Observations:
Fig 4. Amplitude Modulation waveforms with various modulation indices and Envelope detector
output waveforms
Precautions:
1. Check the connections before switching ON the power supply
2. Observations should be done carefully.
Results:
Post-Lab Requirements
1. Create the illustration for Amplitude Modulation.

2. Compare the results are obtained in hardware lab with that of computer
simulations.
3. Submit your illustration to the lab instructor at next week's lab.
Viva Questions:
1) Why modulation is necessary?

2) Define AM and draw its spectrum? What is its band width?
3) Why percentage modulation is always less than 100 % in case of A.M.?
4) Give the significance of modulation index?
5) What are the different degrees of modulation?
6) What will be the change in modulation index if there is change in amplitude of
modulating signal ?
7) What will be the change in modulation index if there is change in frequency of
modulating signal ?
8) Compare linear and nonlinear modulators?
9) Explain how AM wave is detected?
10) What are the different types of distortions that occur in an envelop detector? How
can they be eliminated?
11) How many channels are contained in the AM broadcast band?
12) What is the bandwidth of each of the channels in the AM broadcast band?
13) Draw AM signal in which carrier signal is sinusoidal and modulating signal is
triangular wave.
14) An audio signal of 7.5 KHz with a peak of 4.5 Volts modulates the carrier of 7.5
Volts peak with frequency 510 KHz. Find out the modulation index.
15) What is the bandwidth requirement for the AM signal when the frequencies of the
modulating signals 200 Hz, 400 Hz and 800 Hz are transmitted simultaneously?
2. DSB-SC Modulation & Demodulation
Objectives:
1. To construct and study the DSB-SC Modulation technique.
2. To examine the time displays of an DSB-SC signal.
3. To investigate the use (& limitation) of synchronous (envelope) detection for
demodulating DSB-SC signals.
Pre-Lab Work:
1. Basic theory of DSB-SC modulation using balanced modulator and synchronous

detection techniques.
2. Time and Frequency analysis of DSB-SC waves.
3. Understanding the circuit diagrams of DSB-SC generation using balanced
modulator and envelope detection.
Equipment and Components:
Circuit Diagram:
Fig 1. Circuit diagram of DSB-SC Modulation and Demodulation
Basic Theory: The block diagram of DSB-SC modulator is shown in Fig 2. A balanced
modulator consists of two standard AM modulators arranged in a balanced configuration
to suppress the carrier wave. We assume that the two modulators are identical except
for the signal reversal of the modulating wave applied to the input of one of them. Thus
the outputs of the two modulators are expressed as follows:
s1(t )  Ac [1  ka m(t )]cos 2 f ct and s2 (t )  Ac [1  ka m(t )]cos 2 f ct
By subtracting s2 (t ) from s1 (t ) , we obtain
s(t )  s1(t )  s2 (t )  [2ka m(t ) Ac cos 2 f ct ]m(t ) .
Hence except for the scaling factor 2k a the balanced modulator output is equal to the
product of the modulating wave and carrier as required. An envelope detector is used for
demodulation purpose.
Fig. 2 Block diagram of Balanced Modulator

Procedure:
DSB-SC Modulation:
1. Construct the AM DSBSC modulator circuit shown in Figure 3. Set the
signal generator output amplitude to 0V.
2. Set the dc control voltage Vc to 0 V and adjust R2 until a sine wave with
minimum distortion is observed at Vout.
3. Increase the dc control voltage Vc until the output signal decrease to 0 V
(approximately equal to +6V dc)
4. Set the amplitude of the audio signal generator output voltage to +2 Vp-p
and adjust its frequency to 1 kHz.
5. Adjust the dc control voltage and signal generator output voltage until a
symmetrical AM DSBSC waveform with maximum amplitude is observed
at Vout.
6. Describe the waveform observed in step 5.
7. Vary the control voltage slightly above then slightly below +6 V Vdc and
describe what effect it has on the output waveform.
8. Vary the frequency of the audio signal generator and describe what effect
it has on the output waveform.
9. Vary the amplitude of the audio signal generator and describe what effect
it has on the output waveform.
Demodulation:
1. Now assemble the demodulation circuit.
2. By varying the 22k potentiometer observe the demodulated signal.
3. By varying the modulating voltage in the DSB-SC modulation circuit, observe the
demodulated signal.
4. Similarly, by varying the modulating signal frequency in the modulation circuit,
observe the demodulated signal.
Observations:
Model Wave Forms:
Fig 3. DSB-SC Modulation waveforms and Envelope detector output waveforms
Results:
Viva Questions
1. What are discrete frequencies in DSB-SC?
2. What is the advantage of DSB-SC over AM?
3. Mention the names of methods for DSB-SC generation?
4. What do you mean by coherence detection and non-coherent detection?
5. How a message signal recovered from DSBSC wave?
6. What is the disadvantage of DSB-SC?
7. What is the bandwidth of DSB-SC?
8. Why DSB-SC is not used for commercial broad casting?
9. Mention few applications for DSB-SC.
3. Frequency Modulation and De-Modulation using PLL
Objectives:
1. To construct and study the Frequency Modulation technique.
2. To examine the time displays of an FM signal.
3. To examine the frequency deviations for various modulating signal voltages.
4. To measure the percentage of modulation, and total power in frequency
modulation.
5. To investigate the use FM demodulation using PLL.
Pre-Lab Work:
1. Basic theory of Frequency Modulation techniques. Time and Frequency
analysis of AM waves.
2. Basic theory of PLL FM demodulation.
3. Understanding the circuit diagrams of FM generation and detection.
1. Signal generator
2. CRO
3. IC XR-2206, LM 565
4. Resistors
5. Capacitors.
6. Connecting wires &probes
Basic Theory:
Modulation is concerned with changing some characteristics of a high frequency
carrier wave in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal to be transmitted.
Frequency modulation is a system in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in
accordance with the amplitude variations of the message signal; whereas the amplitude
of the carrier remains unaltered. In FM the information is being carried by the carrier in
its frequency variations and not in amplitude. This is a great advantage in FM because
the noise generally affects the amplitudes of the waveform.
The mathematical representation of FM is given by
t
sFM (t )  Ac cos ct  2 k f  m( ) d 
  
where c(t )  Ac cos ct is RF carrier signal, m(t ) is modulating signal and k f is
frequency modulation sensitivity constant. For a single-tone modulating signal, the FM

wave is represented by
sFM (t )  Ac cos ct   f sin 2 f mt 
k f Am f
where  f   is called frequency modulation index, and where again
fm fm
f  k f Am is known as frequency deviation. The bandwidth required to propagate
an FM wave according to the Carson’s rule is represented by B.WFM  2(f  k f )
Hz. The circuit diagram of Frequency Modulation is shown in Fig.1.

Frequency Demodulation:
Frequency demodulation is the process that enables one to extract the original
modulating from the frequency modulated wave. This can be achieved by a system
which has a transfer characteristics just inverse of voltage controlled oscillator
(VCO). In other words a frequency demodulator produces an output voltage whose
instantaneous frequency of input FM signal. There are various kinds of FM
demodulation techniques are available. In this experiment PLL based Frequency
demodulation technique is used and the circuit is shown in Fig 2.
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.1 Circuit diagram of Frequency Modulation

Procedure:
Frequency Modulation.
1. Connect the Frequency Modulation circuit diagram shown in Fig.1.
2. Measure the frequency of the carrier signal at the FM output terminal with the
modulating signal is zero and plot the same on graph.
3. Apply the modulating signal of 500HZ with 1Vp-p.
4. Observe the modulated wave on the C.R.O & plot the same on graph.
5. Find the modulation index by measuring minimum and maximum frequency
deviations from the carrier frequency using CRO.
6. Determine the bandwidth of FM wave
7. Repeat the steps 5 and 6 by changing the amplitude and /or frequency of the
modulating Signal.
FM Demodulation:
Fig.2 Circuit diagram of FM Demodulation
8. Now wire the circuit as per the FM demodulation circuit shown in Fig.2.
9. Initially lock the VCO of PLL to the carrier frequency of FM wave.
10. Now apply the modulated signal as an input to demodulator circuit and compare
the demodulated signal with the input modulating signal & also draw the same on
the graph.
11. Observe the demodulated output for changing the amplitude and /or frequency of
the modulating Signal.
Observations:
S.No Am fc fm f max f min Freq. Modulation

Volts Hz Hz Hz Hz Deviation f index
1
2
Model Wave Forms:
Results:
Viva Questions:
1. Define frequency modulation?

2. Mention the advantages of indirect method of FM generation?
3. Define modulation index and frequency deviation of FM?

4. What are the advantages of FM?
5. What is narrow band FM?
6. Compare narrow band FM and wide band FM?
7. Differentiate FM and AM?
8. How FM wave can be converted into PM wave?
9. State the principle of reactance tube modulator?
10. Draw the circuit of varactor diode modulator?
11. What is the bandwidth of FM system?
12. Want is the function of FM discriminator?
13. How does ratio detector differ from fosterseely discriminator?
14. What is meant by linear detector?
15. What are the drawbacks of slope detector?
4. Pulse Amplitude Modulation
Objectives:
1. To construct and study the Pulse Amplitude Modulation technique.
2. To examine the time displays of PAM signal.
3. To study the effect of PAM for varying width of carrier pulse train.
4. To study the demodulating PAM signals.
Pre-Lab Work:
1. Basic theory of Pulse Amplitude modulation techniques. Time and Frequency
analysis of PAM waves.
2. Basic theory of PAM demodulation techniques.
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.1 Circuit diagram of PAM modulation and demodulation.
Brief Theory:
PAM Modulation:
Pulse modulation is one form of pulse modulation used in the transmission of digital
signals in a message processing format. In PAM, the RF carrier pulses amplitude is
varied in accordance with the instantaneous values of a continuous message signal. The
simplest form of the PAM modulator is an analog switch that is turned on and off at the
RF carrier pulse rate. As the switch changes state, the intelligence signal is connected
and disconnected from the output. Thus the output PAM signal is a sampled version of
the input intelligence signal. The PAM wave contains upper and lower side band
frequencies besides the modulating and pulse signals. Fig.1 shows the circuit diagram of
PAM modulation.
PAM Demodulation:
A spectral analysis of complex PAM signal reveals that the intelligence signal
frequency components are far removed in frequency from the other frequency
components of the complex PAM waveform. This is true only if the sampling rate is
considerably higher than the highest intelligence frequency being used. Thus if the
sampling rate is kept enough in comparison to the intelligence signals being used, a
simple low pass filter (LPF) can be used as a PAM demodulator to retrieve the original
information.
In the PAM demodulated process, the PAM signal is passed through a low pass filter
having a cut-off frequencies equal to the highest frequency in the modulating signal. At
the output of the filter, the modulating signal along with the DC component is available.
PAM has the same signal to noise ratio as AM and so it is not employed in practical
circuits. Fig.1 shows the circuit diagram of PAM demodulation.
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the PAM circuit diagram shown in Fig.1.
2. Set the modulating frequency to 200HZ, magnitude 1Vp-p with offset 3.5V.
3. Set the sampling frequency to 1KHz, 0-4.5 V and 50 % duty cycle.
4. Observe the PAM wave output on CRO.
5. Measure the levels of Vmax and Vmin .
5. Observe the demodulated output. If necessary set the potentiometer to a value

such that the demodulated output is reproduced without any distortion.
6. Now increase the frequency of the input sinusoidal (the amplitude and offset
remains the same) to 400 Hz, 500 Hz (the Nyquist frequency) and 600 Hz.
Comment on the PAM modulated waveforms.
7. Observe demodulation output for increase the frequency of the input sinusoid as
in step 6.
8. Now vary the magnitude of the input sinusoidal signal (the frequency is remains
constant).
9. Observe the PAM output and corresponding demodulated output in each case.
Model Wave Forms:
Fig 2. Pulse Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation

Precautions:
1. Connections should be made carefully.
2. The components (resistors, capacitors and ICs ) must be identified properly
before giving the circuit connections.
3. The components must be properly doped into the bread board.
Results:
1. Create the illustration for Pulse Amplitude Modulation.

simulations.
Viva Questions:
1. What are the classifications of pulse modulation techniques?
2. What is the transmission bandwidth of Pulse amplitude modulation?
3. What are the limitations in Pulse amplitude modulated signal?

4. What do you mean by synchronization in PAM?
5. Write the standard equation of a PAM in frequency domain?
6. What is meant by Aperture effect?
7. Draw the frequency spectrum of a PAM signal?
8. What is the time domain representation of a PAM signal?
9. What are the major differences between PAM &PWM?
10. Which type of sampling technique is used in PAM signal?
5. Pulse Width Modulation
Objectives:
1. To construct and study the Pulse Width Modulation technique.
2. To examine the time displays of PWM signal.
3. To study the demodulating PWM signals.
Pre-Lab Work:
1. Basic theory of Pulse Width modulation techniques. Time and Frequency
analysis of PAM waves.
2. Basic theory of PWM demodulation techniques.
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.1 Pulse width Modulation and Demodulation
Basic Theory
Pulse Time Modulation is also known as Pulse Width Modulation or Pulse Length
Modulation. In PWM, the samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of
the individual pulses. Width may be varied by varying the time of occurrence of leading
edge, the trailing edge or both edges of the pulse in accordance with modulating wave. It
is also called Pulse Duration Modulation. In Pulse width modulation, the amplitude of the
pulses is constant. In generation of PWM, the input modulating signal is applied to non -
inverting terminal of op-amp. The op-amp now compares this modulating signal with
internally generated saw tooth signal. The output of the comparator is high only when
instantaneous value of input modulating signal is grater then that of saw tooth waveform.
When saw tooth waveform voltage is grater then input modulating signal at that instant
the output of the comparator remains zero i.e. in negative saturation. Thus output of
comparator is PWM signal. A low pass filter is used to demodulate the PWM modulated
signal as shown in Fig.1.
Procedure:
1. Connections are made as per the PWM circuit diagram shown in Fig.1.
2. Set the modulating frequency to 200HZ, magnitude 2Vp-p.
3. Observe the PWM wave output on CRO.
4. Now wire the demodulation circuit as shown in Fig.1.
5. Observe the demodulated output. If necessary set the potentiometer to a value
such that the demodulated output is reproduced without any distortion.
6. Now vary the magnitude of the input sinusoidal signal (the frequency is remains
constant).
7. Observe the PWM output and corresponding demodulated output in each case.
8. Now increase the frequency of the input sinusoidal (the amplitude and offset
remains the same) to 400 Hz, 500 Hz and 600 Hz. Comment on the PWM
modulated waveforms.
9. Observe demodulation output for increase the frequency of the input sinusoid as
in step 6.
Output Waveform:
Fig.2. Expected waveforms

Precautions:
Results:
1. Create the illustration for Pulse Width Modulation

simulations.
Viva Questions:
1. What are the different types of PTM systems?

2. What is the other name of Pulse width modulation?
3. What do you mean by pulse time modulation?
4. What is the comparison between the PAM and PWM?
5. What is the definition of PWM?
6. What is the transmission bandwidth of PWM signal?
7. Which type sampling technique is used in PWM?
8. What are the applications of PWM modulation technique?
6. Pulse Position Modulation

Objectives:
1. To construct and study the Pulse Position Modulation technique.
2. To examine the time displays of PPM signal.
3. To study the demodulating PPM signals.
Pre-Lab Work:
1. Basic theory of Pulse Position modulation techniques. Time and Frequency
analysis of PPM waves.
2. Basic theory of PPM demodulation techniques.
Circuit Diagram:
Fig1. The circuit diagram of Pulse Position Modulation using PWM and Demodulation.
Basic Theory:
In Pulse Position Modulation, both the pulse amplitude and pulse duration are held
constant but the position of the pulse is varied in proportional to the sampled values of
the message signal. Pulse time modulation is a class of signaling techniques that
encodes the sample values of an analog signal on to the time axis of a digital signal and
it is analogous to angle modulation techniques. The two main types of PTM are PWM
and PPM. In PPM the analog sample value determines the position of a narrow pulse
relative to the clocking time. In PPM rise time of pulse decides the channel bandwidth. It
has low noise interference. Generation of PPM is carried out by giving the pulse width
modulated output to mono-stable multi-vibrator as shown in Fig.1. A low pass filter is

used to demodulate the PWM modulated signal as shown in Fig.1.
Output Waveform:
Precautions:

Results:
1. Create the illustration for Pulse Width Modulation

simulations.
Viva Questions:
1. Define PPM?
2. What are the differences between PPM & PWM?
3. Which type of sampling technique is used in PPM?
4. The Multivibrator used in PPM is?
5. Pulse duration of PPM is?
6. In PPM the position is proportionally varied in which parameter of the modulating
signal?
7. Sample and Hold
Objectives:
1. To construct and study the sample-and-hold.
2. To examine the time displays of sample-and-hold signals.
3. To study the effect of sample-and-hold for varying width of carrier pulse train.
4. To study the demodulating sample-and-hold signals.
Equipment:
IC LF398
Signal generator
Capacitor – 0.01 µF
+/- 15V DC Power Supply
Digital Storage Oscilloscope & probes
Connecting wires & Bread Board
Basic Theory: In sample and hold circuit, it converts continuously varying analog signal
to discrete flat top samples and holds its value at a constant level for a specified
minimum period of time. LF398 is a monolithic sample-and-hold circuit utilizing BI-FET
technology for accurate fast acquisition of input signal. A sample and hold circuit is an
analog device that samples (captures) the voltage of a continuously varying analog
signal and holds (locks) its value at a constant level for a specified minimum period of
time (hold time). They are typically used in analog-to-digital converters to eliminate
variations in input signal that can corrupt the conversion process.
Circuit Diagram:
Fig1. Circuit diagram of Sampled and Hold

Procedure:
Step 1: Construct the circuit as shown in Fig1.
Step 2: Use a signal generator to generate analog input and sampling (square wave
signal). The analog input will be set to 1 kHz Sine wave(or triangular wave) and
sampling signal will be 15-20 kHz Square-wave of 80% duty cycle.
Turn on the supply of the circuit and enable signal generator that is feeding signal to the
circuit.
Step 3: Connect the DSO probe – CH1 at analog input (pin # 3 of LF398 IC), CH2 at
sampling signal input (pin # 8 of LF398 IC) and CH3 at output (pin # 5 of the LF398 IC).
Perform Autoset on DSO and capture the output signal.
Step 4: Configure PEAK-to-PEAK measurement on the input and output signal. • Record
the measurement and Observe – input, output on DSO.
Step 5: The Figure shows the message signal with its corresponding Sample-and-hold
output.
Step 6: Observe the following:
(a) Duty cycle of the square pulse is increased to 50%
(b) Capacitor value is changed from 0.01 µF to 1 µF.
8. ASK Generation
Objectives:
1. To generate the waveforms of Amplitude Shift Keying.
Pre-Lab Work:
1.Basic theory of Amplitude Shift Keying.
2.Understanding Important Electrical Characteristics of IC LF 398
3.Understanding the data sheets of components used in the experiment.
4.Computer simulations (Multisim / pSpice) are performed and the objectives are
1. LF 398 IC
2. Resistors.
3. Power supply
4. CRO, Patch cords
Circuit Diagram:
ASK Generation
Fig1. Block diagram of ASK generation and demodulation
Fig2. Circuit diagram of ASK generation and demodulation

Basic Theory:
The binary ASK system was one of the earliest form of digital modulation used in
wireless telegraphy. In an binary ASK system binary symbol 1 is represented by
transmitting a sinusoidal carrier wave of fixed amplitude Ac and fixed frequency fc for the
bit duration Tb where as binary symbol 0 is represented by switching of the carrier for Tb
seconds. This signal can be generated simply by turning the carrier of a sinusoidal
oscillator ON and OFF for the prescribed periods indicated by the modulating pulse train.
For this reason the scheme is also known as on-off shift testing. Let the sinusoidal
carrier can be represented by Ec (t) =Ac cos (2Πfct) then the binary ASK signal can be
represented by a wave s(t) given by S(t) = Accos(2Πfct), symbol 1 ASK signal can be
generated by applying the incoming binary data and the sinusoidal carrier to the two
inputs of a product modulator. The resulting output is the ASK wave. The ASK signal
which is basically product of the binary sequence and carrier signal has a same as that
of base band signal but shifted in the frequency domain by ±fc. The band width of ASK
signal is infinite but practically it is 3/Tb.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the supply.
3. Apply the sinusoidal carrier signal from the function generator of 10v (p-p) amplitude
and10KHz frequency.
4. Apply the Binary signal from the pulse generator with 5v (p-p) amplitude and 2 KHz
frequency.
5. Observe the output of ON/OFF keying from ASK modulator circuit using CRO.
6. Now vary the Amplitude and frequency of the binary signal and observe the output
changes of ASK modulated Wave & compare it with the modulating data signal applied
to the modulator input.
Precautions:
1.Connections should be made carefully.
2.The components (resistors, capacitors and ICs) must be identified properly before
giving the circuit connections.
3.The components must be properly doped into the bread board.
Model waveforms:
Figure : The message signal with its ASK waveform
Results:
1.Check and Create the illustration for ASK Generation
2.Compare the results are obtained in hardware lab with that of computer
simulations.
3.Submit your illustration to the lab instructor at next week's lab.
Viva Questions:
1.Why we are not preferred ASK over PSK and FSK?
2. What is another name of ASK modulation scheme?
3. What is the Effect of carrier amplitude, frequency, V cc on the output? In PPM the
position is proportionally varied in which parameter of the modulating signal?
9. Frequency shift keying

Objectives:
1.To study the characteristics of Binary Frequency Shift keying (BFSK) modulation and
demodulation.
2.To generate the waveforms of frequency shift keying.
Pre-Lab Work:
1. Basic theory of Binary Frequency Shift keying.
2. Understanding Important Electrical Characteristics of IC LF 398
1.LF 398 IC
2.Resistors.
3. Power supply
4. CRO,Patch cords
Circuit Diagram:
Fig1: The circuit used to generate FSK output

Basic Theory:
FSK signaling schemes find a wide range of applications in low-speed digital data
transmission system. FSK schemes are not as efficient as PSK in terms of power and
bandwidth utilization. In binary FSK signaling the waveforms are used to convey binary
digits 0 and 1 respectively. The binary FSK waveform is a continuous, phase constant
envelope FM waveform. The FSK signal bandwidth in this case is of order of 2MHz,
which is same as the order of the bandwidth of PSK signal.
In frequency-shift keying, the signals transmitted for marks (binary ones) and spaces
(binary zeros) are
s1(t )  A cos(1t  c ), 0t T
s2 (t )  A cos(2t  c ), 0  t  T
respectively. This is called a discontinuous phase FSK system, because the phase of
the signal is discontinuous at the switching times.
FSK Demodulator
The modulated output is fed to the low pass filter which filters out the lower frequency
component. The output of the low pass filter is shown in Fig 1. The output from the low
pass filter is then connected to the rectifier circuit while charging it against a capacitor.
The diode doesn't allow the capacitor to get discharged in the reverse path and so we
get approximately half-square wave. This output is then fed to the voltage comparator
which compares the input voltage against Vref. This generates two output voltage levels
+Vsat and -Vsat thereby reconstructing the original binary signal to the system. The
voltage level of the binary signal, the bias voltage of the op amps in the Wien Bridge
Oscillators and the voltage comparator is kept same so as to generate same waveforms.
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Apply the binary data (square wave) input with frequency of 1 KHz from function
generator
3. Give the power supply to the appropriate pins.
4. Observe the FSK output.
5. Now note down the mark and space frequencies for different carrier frequencies.
6. Calculate the maximum frequency deviation and modulation index.
7. Repeat the steps (5) and (6) for different pulse durations of binary input.
Precautions:
Model waveforms:
Figure : The binary message signal with its corresponding BFSK output
Results:
1.Check and Create the illustration for FSK Generation
2.Compare the results are obtained in hardware lab with that of computer simulations.
Viva Questions:
1. Write the advantage of FSK compared to ASK?
2. What is the disadvantage of FSK compared with ASK & PSK?
3. What is the effect of R1, C2 values on the output?

10. PHASE SHIFT KEYING

Objectives:
To generate the waveforms of Phase shift keying.
Pre-Lab Work:
1. Basic theory of Phase shift keying.
2. Understanding Important Electrical Characteristics of IC 741 and IC LF 398
1. ICs LF 398 and 741
2.Resistors.
3. Power supply
4. CRO,Patch cords
Circuit Diagram:
BPSK Modulator:
Fig1. BPSK Modulator and Demodulator
Fig2. Pin diagram of LM324 / TL084

Basic Theory:
The phase of carrier is shifted between two values is called Phase Shift Keying. The
amplitude of carrier remains constant. Phase Shift Keying is also called Phase Reversal
Keying. The performance of PSK is more than ASK. PSK is a non linear modulation.
PSK needs a complicated. Synchronous circuit at the receiver. The bandwidth of PSK is
2fm.
Precautions:
Procedure:
1. Apply the carrier signal of amplitude7v (p-p) with frequency of 4 KHz to the modulator
input and observe the signal on the channel of the CRO.
2. Apply the modulating signal of amplitude 6V (p-p) and frequency of 0.5 KHz.
3. Observe the output of PSK modulator on the channel 2 of the CRO.
4. Now connect the demodulator circuit and apply the PSK modulated output, then
observe the demodulated output.
Model waveforms:
Results:
1.Check and Create the illustration for PSK Generation
2.Compare the results are obtained in hardware lab with that of computer simulations.
Viva Questions:
1. Drawback of DPSK compared to BPSK?
2. Write the advantage of BPSK over the BPSK?
3. What is the effect of carrier amplitude on the output?
4. What is the effect of modulating signal frequency on the output?
11. ADC and DAC

Objectives:
1. To design and verify D/A converter and A/D converters.
2. To construct and study D/A converter and A/D converter.
Pre-Lab Work:
1. Basic theory of A/D converters and D/A converters.
2. Understanding Important Electrical Characteristics of IC 1408
Analog to Digital Converter
Basic Theory:
The ADC 0808 is an 8-bit A-to-D converter, having data lines D0-D7. It works on the
principle of successive approximation. It has a total of eight analogue input channels, out
of which any one can be selected using address lines A, B and C. Here, in this case,
input channel IN0 is selected by grounding A, B and C address lines.
Usually the control signals EOC (end of conversion), SC (start conversion), and OE
(output enable) are interfaced by means of a microprocessor. However, the circuit
shown here is built to operate in its continuous mode without using any microprocessor.
Therefore the input control signals ALE and OE, being active-high, are tied to Vcc (+5
volts). The input control signal SC, being active-low, initiates start of conversion at falling
edge of the pulse, whereas the output signal EOC becomes high after completion of
digitization. This EOC output is coupled to SC input, where falling edge of EOC output
acts as SC input to direct the ADC to start the conversion.
As the conversion starts, EOC signal goes high. At next clock pulse EOC output again
goes low, and hence SC is enabled to start the next conversion. Thus, it provides
continuous 8-bit digital output corresponding to instantaneous value of analogue input.
The maximum level of analogue input voltage should be appropriately scaled down
below positive reference (+5V) level. The ADC 0808 IC requires clock signal of typically
550 kHz, which can be easily derived from an astable multivibrator, constructed using
7404 inverter gates.
In order to visualize the digital output, the row of eight LEDs (LED1 through LED8)
have been used, wherein each LED is connected to respective data lines D0 through
D7. Since ADC works in the continuous mode, it displays digital output as soon as
analogue input is applied. The decimal equivalent digital output value D for a given
analogue input voltage Vin can be calculated from the relationship.
Circuit Diagram:
Digital to Analog Converter

Basic Theory:
The 1408 is an 8 bit R/2R ladder type D/A converter compatible with TTL and CMOS
logic. It is designed to use where the output current is linear product of an eight bit digital
word.
The IC 1408 consists of a reference current amplifier, an R/2R ladder and eight high
speed current switches. It has eight input data lines A1 (MSB) through A8 (LSB).
It requires 2 mA reference current for full scale input and two power supplies Vcc = + 5 V
and VEE = - 15 V (VEE can range from 5 V to - 15 V). The voltage Vref and resistor R14
determines the total reference current source and R15 is generally equal to R 14 to match
the input impedance of the reference current amplifier.
Important Electrical Characteristics for IC 1408:
Reference current : 2 mA
Supply voltage : + 5 Vcc and - 15 V VEE
Setting time : 300 ns
Full scale output current : 1.992 mA
Accuracy : 0.19 %
When input = 11111111, Io is given by

V0= 1.992mA x 5KΩ=9.961V
Note: The arrow on the pin 4 shows the output current direction. It is inward. This means
that IC 1408 sinks current. At (0000 0000) 2 binary input it sinks zero current and at
(11111111)2binary input it sinks 1.992 mA.
This circuit can be modified to give bipolar output.
INPUT OUTPUT
(0000 0000)2. 0
FFH (1111 1111)2. = 1.992mAx5KΩ
Bipolar
Condition 1: For binary input (00H)
When binary input is 00H, the output current Io at pin 4 is zero. Due to this current
flowing through RB (1 mA) flows through Rf giving Vo = - 5 V.
Condition 2: For binary input 80H (10000000)
When binary input is 80H, the output current Io at pin 4 is 1 mA. By applying KCL at node
A we get,
-Ib+I0 +If = 0. Substituting values of IB and Io we get,
-(1 mA) + (1 mA) + If = 0: If = 0 and therefore Vo = 0V.
Condition 3: For binary input FFH (11111111)
When binary input is FFH, the output current I0at pin 4 is 2 mA. By applying KCL at node
A we get,
-IB+Io+If = 0
Substituting values of IB and Io we get,
- (1 mA) + (2 mA) + If = 0
If = - 1 mA
Therefore, Vo = + 5 V.
In this way, circuit shown in the Fig. 9.26 gives output in the bipolar range.
Example: For above bipolar circuit, calculate the output voltage, V0 for digital input word
of
1. 00000000
2. 01111111
3. 10000000
4. 11111111
Current for 1 LSB is 8µA. IFS = 8µAx255=2.04mA.
For 00000000 input, I0 = 8µA x 0 = 0
I0’ =2.040mA-0=2.04mA.
V0= (0-2.04mA) (5KΩ) = -10.20V
Precautions:

2. The components (resistors, capacitors and ICs) must be identified properly
Results:
1. illustration of ADC and DAC

simulations.
Viva Questions:
1. What is ADC?
2. What are the differences between ADC & DAC?
3. Which type of techniques used in ADC?
4. What is Resolution?
5. Applications of ADC & DAC?

Communication Theory-1-Lab (15EC2205) : Prepared by Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao Dr. S. Lakshminarayana, Dept. of ECE

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Communication Theory-1-Lab (15EC2205) : Prepared by Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao Dr. S. Lakshminarayana, Dept. of ECE

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Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept.

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Laboratory Course Guidelines and Policies:

1. Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation 4-

2. DSB-SC Modulation and Demodulation

3. Frequency Modulation and Demodulation using PLL

4. Pulse Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation -.

5. Pulse Width Modulation and Demodulation

6. Pulse Position Modulation and Demodulation

7. Sample and Hold

8. ASK Modulation and Demodulation

9. FSK Modulation and Demodulation

10. BPSK Modulation and Demodulation

11. ADC and DAC

1. Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation

Output Amplitude versus Input Control Voltage Characteristics of XR2206

AM Modulation: Amplitude Modulation is defined as a system of modulation in which

modulated (AM) wave is defined by

s(t )  Ac [1  ka m(t )]cos 2 f ct (1)

where Ka  1/ Ac is a constant is called amplitude sensitivity of the modulator. The term

Ac [1  Ka m(t )] is referred to as envelope of the AM wave.

Fig.1: XR-2206 functional block diagram

component. That is m(t )  Am cos 2 f mt , where Am is the amplitude and f m is the

where   ka Am  Am / Ac is called modulation factor or percentage modulation. To

Fig 2. Circuit diagram of Amplitude Modulation

Fig 3. Circuit diagram of Envelope Detection.

9. Sketch the waveform observed in step 8.

determine the percentage modulation of output envelope using the following

Where  modulation index

Vmin = minimum peak-to-peak envelope amplitude (volts)

1. Create the illustration for Amplitude Modulation.

1) Why modulation is necessary?

2. DSB-SC Modulation & Demodulation

1. Basic theory of DSB-SC modulation using balanced modulator and synchronous

Equipment and Components:

Fig 1. Circuit diagram of DSB-SC Modulation and Demodulation

By subtracting s2 (t ) from s1 (t ) , we obtain

s(t )  s1(t )  s2 (t )  [2ka m(t ) Ac cos 2 f ct ]m(t ) .

Fig. 2 Block diagram of Balanced Modulator

Fig 3. DSB-SC Modulation waveforms and Envelope detector output waveforms

3. Frequency Modulation and De-Modulation using PLL

frequency modulation sensitivity constant. For a single-tone modulating signal, the FM

sFM (t )  Ac cos ct   f sin 2 f mt 

an FM wave according to the Carson’s rule is represented by B.WFM  2(f  k f )

Hz. The circuit diagram of Frequency Modulation is shown in Fig.1.

Fig.1 Circuit diagram of Frequency Modulation

Fig.2 Circuit diagram of FM Demodulation

S.No Am fc fm f max f min Freq. Modulation

Model Wave Forms:

1. Define frequency modulation?

3. Define modulation index and frequency deviation of FM?

4. Pulse Amplitude Modulation

Fig.1 Circuit diagram of PAM modulation and demodulation.

5. Observe the demodulated output. If necessary set the potentiometer to a value

Model Wave Forms:

Fig 2. Pulse Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation

1. Create the illustration for Pulse Amplitude Modulation.

3. What are the limitations in Pulse amplitude modulated signal?

5. Pulse Width Modulation

Fig.1 Pulse width Modulation and Demodulation

Fig.2. Expected waveforms

1. Create the illustration for Pulse Width Modulation