CE 322 Assignment 3 Due: 12/10/2020

Assignment Questions

1. Define boundary layer and explain how it is formed.

Growth of a boundary layer on a flat plate. (A flat stationary plate placed along a flow path)
A boundary layer is a thin layer of viscous fluid close to the solid surface of a wall in contact with
a moving stream in which (within its thickness δ) the flow velocity varies from zero at the wall
(where the flow “sticks” to the wall because of its viscosity) up to Ue at the boundary, which
approximately (within 99 %) corresponds to the free stream velocity.

Formation of boundary layer

The boundary layer grows from zero when a fluid starts to flow over a solid surface. As is passes over a
greater length more fluid is slowed by friction between the fluid layers close to the boundary. Hence the
thickness of the slower layer increases.

The fluid near the top of the boundary layer is dragging the fluid nearer to the solid surface along. The
mechanism for this dragging may be one of two types:

The first type occurs when the normal viscous forces (the forces which hold the fluid together) are large
enough to exert drag effects on the slower moving fluid close to the solid boundary. If the boundary layer
is thin then the velocity gradient normal to the surface, (du/dy), is large so by Newton's law of viscosity the
shear stress,  =  (du/dy), is also large. The corresponding force may then be large enough to exert drag
on the fluid close to the surface.

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As the boundary layer thickness becomes greater, so the velocity gradient become smaller and the shear
stress decreases until it is no longer enough to drag the slow fluid near the surface along. If this viscous
force was the only action then the fluid would come to a rest.

It, of course, does not come to rest but the second mechanism comes into play. Up to this point the flow
has been laminar and Newton's law of viscosity has applied. This part of the boundary layer is known as
the laminar boundary layer

The viscous shear stresses have held the fluid particles in a constant motion within layers. They become
small as the boundary layer increases in thickness and the velocity gradient gets smaller. Eventually they
are no longer able to hold the flow in layers and the fluid starts to rotate.

This causes the fluid motion to rapidly becomes turbulent. Fluid from the fast moving region moves to the
slower zone transferring momentum and thus maintaining the fluid by the wall in motion. Conversely, slow
moving fluid moves to the faster moving region slowing it down. The net effect is an increase in
momentum in the boundary layer. We call the part of the boundary layer the turbulent boundary layer.

At points very close to the boundary the velocity gradients become very large and the velocity gradients
become very large with the viscous shear forces again becoming large enough to maintain the fluid in
laminar motion. This region is known as the laminar sub-layer. This layer occurs within the turbulent
zone and is next to the wall and very thin - a few hundredths of a mm.

2. The boundary layer may lift off or separate from the body. Why is that so? Explain in
terms of energy, pressure and flow condition.

Flow separation or boundary layer separation is the detachment of a boundary layer from a
surface into a wake. Separation occurs in flow that is slowing down, with pressure increasing,
after passing the thickest part of a streamline body or passing through a widening passage, for
example.
Flowing against an increasing pressure is known as flowing in an adverse pressure gradient. The
boundary layer separates when it has travelled far enough in an adverse pressure gradient that
the speed of the boundary layer relative to the surface has stopped and reversed direction. The
flow becomes detached from the surface, and instead takes the forms of eddies and vortices. The
fluid exerts a constant pressure on the surface once it has separated instead of a continually
increasing pressure if still attached. The flow experiences a reduction in energy level during a
separation.

Figure shows flow separation over an air foil.

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 3. What are the effects of boundary layer separation on transport medium such as vehicle,
airplanes, ships /submarines?
In aerodynamics, flow separation results in reduced lift and increased pressure drag, caused by
the pressure differential between the front and rear surfaces of the object. It causes buffeting of
aircraft structures and control surfaces. In internal passages separation causes stalling and
vibrations in machinery blading and increased losses (lower efficiency) in inlets and compressors.
Much effort and research has gone into the design of aerodynamic and hydrodynamic surface
contours and added features which delay flow separation and keep the flow attached for as long
as possible. Examples include the fur on a tennis ball, dimples on a golf ball, turbulators on a
glider, which induce an early transition to turbulent flow; vortex generators on aircraft.
4. State the effects of a turbulent boundary layer, and describe their applications.

Turbulent boundary layers occur at high Reynolds numbers.

With a turbulent boundary layer, the velocity in the y-direction increases faster than with a laminar
boundary layer. This means a larger velocity gradient near the wall and thus higher velocity
components in the boundary layer. The resulting higher kinetic energy of the boundary layer can
counteract the adverse pressure gradient more, so to speak.
In the case of a turbulent boundary layer, the separation point thus shifts downstream. The
turbulent wake becomes narrower with the shifting of the separation point. This reduces the flow
losses and thus the pressure drag, which ultimately results in a reduction of the overall drag.
Turbulent boundary layers adhere longer to the surfaces of the body around which flow
occurs. The (pressure) drag is significantly lower. If there is a risk of flow separation,
turbulent boundary layers should be aimed for.

This fact is taken advantage of, for example, with golf balls. The dimples in the golf ball cause
vortices and lead to a turbulent flow around the golf ball. The separation point shifts downstream
and the drag is reduced to only a quarter, which makes the golf ball fly much further.

So-called turbulators (vortex generators) on the wings of aircraft act in a similar way. Often many
small vanes are mounted on the wing for this purpose. These vanes create a transition from a
laminar to a turbulent flow. The turbulent boundary layer, which remains longer on the wing, not
only reduces drag but also the risk of hard stall. Another possibility to achieve a targeted turbulent
flow around wings is the use of so-called blast turbulators. Air is blown out through small holes in
the wing. This also causes the laminar flow to change into a turbulent flow.
5. State the effects of a laminar boundary layer, and describe their applications?
Laminar boundary layers minimise energy losses in the flow while ensuring no boundary layer
separation, and therefore can be used in conjunction with a turbulent boundary layer in similar
applications like aerodynamics for stability purpose.
6. Where does vorticity occur in a boundary layer? Explain with a diagram.
Vortices are formed after the flow is detached from the surface, or downstream of a separation
point.

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 Karman vortex street (the periodic vortex separation around a body at high Reynolds
numbers)
7. What causes pressure drag on a commercial aircraft?
Flow separation results in reduced lift and increased pressure drag, caused by
the pressure differential between the front and rear surfaces of the object.
8. What causes skin friction drag on a commercial aircraft?
Skin friction drag is the aerodynamic resistance due to the contact of moving air with the surface
of an aircraft.
9. How does a turbulent boundary layer form?
A turbulent boundary layer can be induced where required using tabulators , for example on
aircraft wings, or on golf balls. Turbulent boundary layers can occur naturally as a result of
transition of a laminar boundary layer into turbulent as a result of flow conditions.

10. What are the effects of Bridge pier on flow, and the consequence of those flows on the
bridge structure?
Bridge piers represent solid objects placed in a flow path.

The flow around an abutment involves highly separated vortex flow as shown in Figure 2. A
separation bubble is formed at upstream corner of the abutment. Downstream of the abutment,

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 unsteady shedding wake vortices are created due to the separation of the flow at the abutment
corners. These wake vortices are very unsteady and oriented approximately vertical with low
pressure at the vortex cores. These vortices act like small tornadoes, lift up sediment and create
a large scour hole behind the abutment.

11. Explain how drag forces appear along a disturbed flow path.
Vortices create a form of pressure drag called vortex drag. Vortices reduce the air pressure
along the entire rear edge of the wing, which increases the pressure drag on the airplane, similar
case with bridge piers in rivers.
12. What applications require drag forces to be minimised?
Drag forces need to be minimised in transport applications, and in fluid machinery like turbines.
13. Explain how a velocity profile changes along a boundary layer.

Between point 1 and 2, the pressure at point 2 is lower than that at point 1 so the flow is
encouraging in that direction with an increased velocity close to the solid boundary (positive
velocity gradient in the y-direct). Between 2 and 3, the pressure starts to increase in the flow
direction meaning the pressure at point 3 slowly catching up with pressure at point 2 (beginning of
an adverse pressure gradient)so the flow is slowed down(velocity gradient equals zero in the y
direction). The velocity close to the solid boundary has decreased in length. Between points 3
and 4, the adverse pressure gradient has increased therefore a big change in the velocity profile
(velocity gradient less than zero in the y direction) and there is reverse flow being indicated due to
strong adverse pressure gradient near the solid boundary. That is the start of a flow separation
from the surface.
14. Explain how pressure and velocity change along a boundary layer.
15. Between point 1 and 2, the pressure at point 2 is lower than that at point 1 so the flow is
encouraging in that direction with an increased velocity close to the solid boundary (positive

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 velocity gradient in the y-direct). Between 2 and 3, the pressure starts to increase in the flow
direction meaning the pressure at point 3 slowly catching up with pressure at point 2 (beginning of
an adverse pressure gradient)so the flow is slowed down(velocity gradient equals zero in the y
direction). The velocity close to the solid boundary has decreased in length. Between points 3
and 4, the adverse pressure gradient has increased therefore a big change in the velocity profile
(velocity gradient less than zero in the y direction) and there is reverse flow being indicated due to
strong adverse pressure gradient near the solid boundary. That is the start of a flow separation
from the surface.

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