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LECTURE - 1, 2, 3
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

Element - Which contains one kind of atoms.

(i.e. atoms having same number of protons)
Example - O, O2, H, H2, HD (D = Deuterium)
Note :-
 H and D are isotopes of Hydrogen.
 Particle of an element can be formed by its different isotopes.
Example - HD
Compound - Formed by combination (ionic or covalent bond formation) of two or more elements in
a fixed composition.
It can be separated into its elements by chemical methods but not through physical methods.
Example - CO2, NO, H2O, NaCl, SiO2
Mixture - Formed by combination of two or more elements/compounds in any composition. These
can be separated into their components by physical methods. (Example-Distillation, sublimation etc.)
 Constituent particles of a substance - atom, molecule and ions.
Atom - Smallest particle of an element which may or may not have independent existence.
He, H, D, O, N, C, Na. . . . . . . . . .
 Generally atoms do not have independent existence except of noble gases/inert gases and
mercury (Hg).
(He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)
 Independent existence of a particle means that same kind of particles can exist together without
any chemical bond formation with each other.
Ionic Bond

Covalent Bond
Chemical Bonds
Coordinate Bond

Metallic Bond
Interparticle forces

Vander wall's force

Intermolecular forces
Hydrogen Bond
Chemical Bond - Force of attraction through which atoms or ions are joined with each other in a
substance.
Intermolecular force - Force of attraction between molecules.
 Chemical bonds are stronger than intermolecular forces.
Coordinate Bond - When shared pair of electron is given by one atom then it is called coordinate
bond.
Once the coordinate bond is formed, it is similar to single covalent bond.
Metallic Bond - Electrostatic force of attraction between positive metal ions (also called kernel) and
electrons in metal crystal.
Molecule - Smallest particle of element/compound which has independent existence is called
molecule.
Example - He, CO2, H2O, O2, N2, S8
 Molecules may be monoatomic (He, Ne, Ar . . . . . )
or polyatomic (O2, CO2, H2O . . . . . )
 Molecules may be homonuclear (i.e. of elements) or heteronuclear (i.e. of compounds).
 Constituent particles of gases and liquids are always molecules. i.e. if a substance exists as or
liquid or gas at room temperature then its particles can be called molecules.
Example - CO2(gas), H2O(liquid), He(gas), C2H5OH(liquid), CCl4(liquid), C6H6(liquid)
 Constituent particles of solids may or may not be molecules.
 Ionic compounds and metals (except Hg) do not have molecules. (i.e. NaCl is not a molecule)
Classification of solids -
Type of Solid Constituent Particles Interparticle force Example
Ionic Solid Cations and anions Ionic Bond NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4,
Al2(SO4)3
Metallic Solid Metal kernel or Metallic Bond All metals except Hg
cations (Na, K, Pt, Cu . . . . )
Covalent solid Atoms covalent Bond Diamond, graphite
SiC, SiO2, BN, AlN
B4C, TeO3
Molecular solid Molecules Inter molecular force Ice, Dry Ice
(Vander wall’s force, (CO2), Glucose
Hydrogen bonds) (C6H12O6)
Note - If we have to check that a given particle should be called molecule or not then we should check
that the given particle should not belong to ionic, metal and given examples of covalent solids.
Examples - NaCl, KCl - Ionic solids i.e. not molecules.

SiO2, SiC - Covalent solids i.e. not molecules

Na, K - Metals i.e. not molecules but can be called atoms.

C6H6, CO2, CCl4, He, Ne, O2 - Not ionic, not covalent solids, not metals i.e. molecules.

He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn - can be called atoms as well as molecules.

SiC, SiO2, NaCl, KCl - Can not be called atoms/molecular/ions therefore these are called
formula units.

Empirical formula - It represents the simplest integer ratio of atoms/ions present in a compound.

Molecular formula - it represent actual number of each type of atoms present in a molecule.

Note :- Molecular formula is written for molecules only while empirical formula can be written for ionic
compounds also which do not have molecules.

Examples -

 C6H12O6 (glucose) is a molecule

i.e. C6H12O6 - M.F. of glucose

CH2O - E.F. of glucose.

 NaCl is not a molecule (because it is an ionic compound) therefore NaCl can not be called
molecular formula of sodium chloride, it can be called only empirical formula of sodium chloride.

 Similarly SiO2 is not a molecule (Example of covalent solid) therefore it is not a molecular formula.
It is the empirical formula of silica.

 Formula of Plaster of paris is (CaSO4)2. H2O Or 2CaSO4.H2O

1
We should not represent it as CaSO4. H O because this formula is not representing integral ratio
2 2
of atoms.

 We can say that ionic compounds do not have molecular formula, they are represented by their
empirical formula only.

 To write the chemical formula (empirial formula) of ionic compounds, we should know the formula
of cations and anions. Formula of some common ions are written below:
 Sulphate SO2-
4 Arsenate AsO34

Sulphite SO32 Arsenite AsO33

Nitrate NO3 Nitride N3–

Nitrite NO2 Phosphide P3–

Arsenide As3– Ferrocyanide [Fe(CN)6]4–

Sulphide S2– Ferricyanide [Fe(CN)6]3–
Selenide Se2– Ferrous Fe2+
Telluride Te2– Ferric Fe3+

Perchlorate ClO4 Cuprous Cu+

Chlorate ClO3 Cupric Cu2+

Chlorite ClO2 Mercuric Hg2+

Hypochlorite ClO– Mercurous Hg2+

2

Dichromate Cr2O72 Alkali Metal ions M+ (Na+, K+. . . . .)

Chromate CrO24 Alkaline earth metal ions M2+ (Mg2+, Ca2+ . . . . .)

Permanganate MnO4

Manganate MnO24

Azide N3

Atomic Number (Z) = No of protons/Nuclear charge

Mass Number (A) = No of protons + No of neutrons
 Protons and neutrons are collectively also called ‘nucleons’
 For neutral particle (atom/molecule), number of protons is equal to number of electrons.
 Number of neutrons in an atom = A – Z
Example - Calculate total number of electrons, protons and neutrons in CO32 and H3O+ ( 12 1 16
6 C,1 H,8 O )

Solution -

(1) CO32

Protons = 6 + 3 × 8 = 30

Electrons = 30 + 2 (due to negative charge)

= 32

To calculate total neutrons, first calculate neutrons in each atom.

C = 12 – 6 = 6, O = 16 – 8 = 8

2
 Number of neutrons in CO3 = 6 + 3 × 8 = 30

(2) H3O+

Protons = 3 × 1 + 8 = 11

Electrons = 11 – 1 (due to positive charge)

= 10

Neutrons = 0(for Hydrogen) + 8

=8

Isotopes - Atoms having same atomic number and different mass number.

Isotopes belong to same element.

Hydrogen - 11H(H),12H(D),13H(T)

H - Protium, D-Deuterium, T - Tritium

16 17 18
Oxygen - 8 O, 8 O, 8 O

12 13 14
Carbon - 6 C, 6 C, 6 C

Nitrogen - 14 15
7 N, 7 N

35 37
Chlorine - 17 Cl, 17 Cl
Isobars - Atoms having same mass number and different atomic number

40 40
Example - 19 K and 20 Ca

 Isobars belong to different elements.

 We can also say that isobars are the atoms of different elements which have same number of
nucleons.

Isotones - Atoms having same number of neutrons.

37 39
Example - 17 Cl, 19 K (Both have 20 neutrons)

31 32
15 P, 16 S (Both have 16 neutrons)

Isodiaphers - Atoms/ nuclides having same difference of neutrons and protons.

238 234
Example - 92 U, 90 Th

238
92 U = Protons(p) = 92, Neutrons(n) = 238 – 92 =146

n – p = 146 – 92 = 54

234
90 Th = Protons(p) = 90, neutrons (n) = 234 – 90 = 144

n – p = 144 – 90 = 54

Isoelectronic - Particles (Atoms, ions or molecules) having same number of electrons.

Example (1) K+, Ca2+, Sc3+

Cl–, S2–, P3–, Ar (all have 18 electrons)

(2) CO, CN–, N2, C22 , NO+(all have 14 electrons.)

Note - According to new IUPAC, two or more molecules are described as isoelectronic if they have
same number of valence electrons and same structure (i.e. identical bonding) but differ in type
of elements (details are not in our syllabus).
 Name and Symbols of Some Important Elements
st nd rd th th th th th
1 Group 2 Group 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17 Group 18 Group
Lithium (Li) Berilium (Be) Boron (B) Carbon (C) Nitrogen (N) Oxygen (O) Fluorine (F) Helium (2He)
Sodium (Na) Magnesium (Mg) Aluminium (Al) Silicon (Si) Phosphorus (P) Sulphur (S) Chlorine (Cl) Neon (10Ne)
Potassium (K) Calcium (Ca) Gallium (Ga) Germanium (Ge) Arsenic (As) Selenium (Se) Bromine (Br) Argon (18Ar)
Rubidium (Rb) Strontium (Sr) Indium (In) Tin (Sn) Antimony (Sb) Tellurium (Te) Iodine (I) Krypton (36Kr)
Caesium (Cs) Barium (Ba) Thallium (Tl) Lead (Pb) Bismuth (Bi) Polonium (Po) Astatine (At) Xenon (54Xe)
Francium (Fr) Radium (Ra)
Radon (86Rn)
Atomic number and Atomic Mass of Some Elements
1. H 2. He 3. Li 4. Be 5. B 6. C 7. N 8. O 9. F 10. Ne
Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
1.008 4.00 7.00 9.0 10.8 12.0 14.0 16 19 20.2
11. Na 12. Mg 13. Al 14. Si 15. P 16. S 17. Cl 18. Ar 19. K 20. Ca
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon Potassium Calcium
23.0 24.3 27.0 28.0 31.0 32.0 35.5 40.0 39.0 40.0
21. Sc 22. Ti 23. V 24. Cr 25. Mn 26. Fe 27. Co 28. Ni 29. Cu 30. Zn
Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc
45.0 48.0 51.0 52.0 55.0 55.8 59.0 58.7 63.5 65.4