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ABSTRACT
A review of the methods and models used in lifetime studies of
solid insulators under single and multiple stress conditions is
presented. The statistical methods used with this type of data
are briefly described. These statistical methods include the
two-parameter Weibull distribution and the log-normal distri-
bution which are the two distributions most frequently used in
aging studies. Most attention is given t o lifetime models under
multiple stresses which have recently generated considerable
interest. In particular, several models under combined electri-
cal and thermal stresses are presented and their applicability
is analyzed and discussed. These include the multistress mod-
els proposed by Simoni and Ramu, both employing the inverse
power law for electrical aging, the exponential model by Fallou,
the probabilistic model by Montanari, and the physical model
by Crine. This paper discusses trends in the development of
these models.
environments or nuclear reactors [6,7]. example, the model based on the Eyring relation by Si-
moni [18,19] and Ramu [20,21], the exponential model
As illustrated by the above examples, some of the de- by Fallou et al. [21,22], the probabilistic model by Mon-
grading stresses are prevalent in specific applications. On tanari et al. [23], and the physical model by Crine et al.
the other hand, these stresses, depending on the nature [24,25].
of equipment and its environment, may combine into a
‘multistress’ situation and cause the aging process to ac- In this paper the statistical methods involved in the
celerate further. One of the most frequently encountered interpretation of the lifetime data, namely the Weibull
situations in real applications are electrical and thermal and the log-normal distributions, and also the most fre-
stresses, acting simultaneously. quently used aging relations under the electrical, thermal
and combined stresses are reviewed.
The ability of the insulating material to withstand de-
grading stresses is of utmost importance in the evalua- ACCELERATED AGING
tion of the material itself. Specifically, the time t o break-
down (or lifetime) of insulation under the applied electri-
cal stress is of major interest in aging studies. A large The main goal of aging studies is to establish a rela-
variety of tests have been performed for this purpose. tionship for the aging process and the stresses causing it,
to suggest models, and t o verify them. All this is done
REVIEW OF ELECTRICAL through an accelerated process, and the results applied
to normal operating conditions. The long-term tests a t
AND THERMAL STRESS realistic working stresses are not possible due to the time
AGING constraints. For example, underground transmission ca-
bles are designed for forty years of service [5]. Therefore,
being able to predict end of life with certain degree of
GING under multifactor stresses is an area that has accuracy in a short time span by accelerating the aging
A recently generated considerable interest. A broad
bibliographic survey was made available recently which
process is very useful to the design engineers. This is
why the accelerated aging tests are generally accepted
includes major publications on the multistress aging of methods for estimating the service-life and other charac-
polymeric insulators [8]. The interest in tests with si- teristics of solid electrical insulation.
multaneous stresses is obvious since the results obtained
are quite different when stresses are applied separately There are several ways to accelerate the aging process,
or sequentially [9, lo]. Simultaneous electrical and ther- particularly when exposed t o simultaneous electrical and
mal stresses have been most commonly investigated since thermal stresses. The most popular are experiments per-
the presence of these two stresses is almost unavoidable formed on insulation at voltages and temperatures much
in most applications [5]. Various experiments have been higher than normal operating conditions. Within this ap-
performed and models proposed to predict life under sep- proach, there are two methods of applying voltage stress,
arate or combined stresses. A majority of these experi- both a t constant frequency [26,27]. In the first method,
ments are performed with the aging process accelerated the voltage (some percentage of breakdown voltage) is
by stresses significantly exceeding the normal operating held constant and time t o failure is observed. In the sec-
stress. Extrapolating life and behavior of these materials ond method, the voltage stress is raised in steps (or con-
when aged under accelerated conditions to that under a tinuously) until the tested specimen fails, and then the
real environment is one of the key goals of these stud- voltage a t which breakdown occurred is noted. For both
ies, and can be achieved by using a model which best fits tests, the experimental data is then converted to life a t
the experimental data. There have been several models a lower stress by the use of empirical models. Another
used to estimate lifetime of the insulation under single approach is to keep the voltage constant a t lower lev-
or multiple stresses. Of these, the most frequently used els (close to service conditions) and accelerate the aging
models are the inverse power model [ll-131 and the ex- process through a n increase in frequency of the applied
ponential model [13,14] under electrical stress only. Cor- voltage [28]. However, this procedure is limited by the
respondingly, for thermal stress only, the Arrhenius rela- dependence of insulation material properties, e.g. dielec-
tionship [15,16] of exponential character is mainly used. tric loss, on the frequency [5]. Furthermore, these tests
More complex models have also been suggested, such as are unreliable because of non-linear effects of frequency
the Theory of Equalization [17]. For multiple stresses, on life, especially at higher frequencies [28,29]. Similar
particularly for electrical and thermal stresses acting si- to the procedure for electrical stress, the aging process
multaneously, several models have been proposed. For under thermal stress is accelerated by applying higher
I E E E !l'ransactions on Electrical Insulation Vol. 25 N o . 5 , October 1990 925
temperatures. Typically, the samples are aged for sev- ordered from smallest to largest and a probability calcu-
eral designated time spans and examined for physical and lated [13,31] for each point using the relationship below
chemical changes, and voltage breakdown strength tests
i
are conducted [17,30]. F(2) = - x 100%
(n+ 1)
where F(i)-is the percentage of failed samples, i is an
order of failed sample (rank), and n is the total number
of samples (including samples not failed).
STRESS
Next, special probability graph paper is used to draw
these points. If the plotted data fit a straight line, rough
estimates for a particular distribution may be obtained.
However , for precise calculation including confidence in-
tervals, one has to refer to specially developed computer
programs or tables generated for this purpose [27,32].
TWO-PARAMETER WElBU LL
DISTRIBUTION
employing single stresses consecutively does not repro- where F ( z ) is a probability of failure, a is the scale pa-
duce the results when combined stresses are applied si- rameter (a > 0) and represents the time (or voltage) for
multaneously [9, lo]. From a practical point of view, the F ( z ) t o reach 63.2%, p is the shape parameter (p > 0)
application of the data from a single stress may not be and is a measure of spread of the data, and z is a random
related or may include errors in reference to real condi- variable (time or voltage).
tions. Because of this fact, research on aging is concen-
trated now on the most common factors i.e. thermal and
electrical stresses applied simultaneously. The scatter in
the experimental data from any lifetime test advocates
the application of statistical methods which are briefly
described in the section below.
STATISTICAL METHODS
Specimen No. F(i) Breakdown Time ti
ORIGIN
SMALL BETA ESTIMATOR A
0.0 50
1
30
20
0.5 -
L
W
3 10
:
; 6
F 4
3-1.15 W
I I I I I 1
E
1.5 c 2
0.5
0.2 1
0
0.1
2.0 3 10 30 100 300 1,000 LCGNORPUL FAILURE PROBABILITY
TIME ( h )
Figure 3.
Figure 2.
Lognormal probability plot of failure d a t a in Ta-
Weibull plot of failure d a t a for t h e epoxy speci-
ble 2 with line fit by eye [13].
mens in Table 1 with line fit by eye, a a n d p are
scale and shape parameter, respectively [13]. Table 2.
Breakdown d a t a on epoxy specimens with Log-
LOG-NORMAL DISTRIBUTION normal distribution [13].
20
10
10
TIME-TO-FAILURE ( h )
0.1 1 IO 100 103 104 105
Figure 4 .
Inverse Power Law, the open circles represent the
TIME ( h )
means (based on the lognormal) for the time-to- Figure 5.
failure at each test voltage [13]. Exponential model (semi-log plot). Mean curve
(solid line), exponential model without threshold
EXPONENTIAL LAW (dashed line), and threshold value (dash-dotted
line) from lifetime data of varnished polyamide
films [34].
Next to the power law, the exponential representation
L=- K2
is the most commonly used. The basic form of this model
E - Eo exp[-KI(E - EO)] (7)
is given by [13]
where E is the applied stress, Lo is life a t EO(the thresh-
L = cexp(-kV) old stress), and K1, Kz are constants.
(5)
log L = logc - kV
With these transformed equations, a better approxi-
where L is the time to failure, V the applied voltage, and
mation may be achieved a t lower fields; however, both
c, k are constants to be found from experimental data.
relations state an infinite life when approaching either
zero (Equation 6) or the threshold stress (Equation 7),
Again, the validity of the exponential model is checked which is inconsistent with existing experimental data.
by plotting the data points on semi-log paper, as shown in Therefore, the models are valid for the regions a t stresses
Figure 5. If a straight line results (shown by the dashed E 2 Eo (Equation 6) and E > E o (Equation 7) [18]. At
line), the assumption of using the exponential model is lower fields ( E < E O ) ,the thermal stress is postulated to
correct. be responsible for the insulation failure.
r
028 Cygan et al.:Insulation A g i n g u n d e r Electrical and Thermal M u l t i s t r e s s
the temperature, is still used today as a basis of thermal both, and the rates of these reactions can be presented in
aging [5, 171. It is given by the general form with N equations
B dc;
L = Aexp - - = -hi(T)Gi(gl,gzr.. .gm)Ci(cl,cz,. . - C N ) (9)
T (8) dt
where L is the life, T the temperature, and A , B are where i = 1 . . . N for homogeneous reactions, T the ab-
constants determined by the activation energy of the re- solute temperature, c; the concentration of characteristic
action. group in reaction i, g j the concentration of the active
gas j in the material (assumed constant but may depend
Similar to the voltage aging relations discussed previ- on temperature), G; is a simplified function for chemi-
ously, when log life is plotted against reciprocal of abso- cal reactions expressed as nLl gy'ni where n,; may be
lute temperature (l/T), a straight line results. A graphi- temperature dependent and represents the reaction order
cal example of the Arrhenius relationship is presented in due to gas n in reaction i, k , ( T ) is a function and may
Figure 6. be of Arrhenius form (Equation 8), and C; are functions
of the concentration of a characteristic group ( c i ) in re-
action i, are separable from IC,(T)G;,and are assumed to
be independent of temperature.
104
w
a A connection between physical properties and compo-
3
sa: sition of the material is represented as a single-valued
function of chemical and physical details of its composi-
clr
0 tion
w p = f ( C 1 , C Z I * * .cn) (10)
VI
a 103 For example, in case of N homogenous equations and time
3
e transformation t' = A t , the acceleration factor A may be
calculated a t two different temperatures TI and T2
factors such as thermal and voltage stresses acting simul- From the analysis of the general equation, it is evident
taneously. These include models by Simoni [18,19] and that all previously discussed simple models are obtain-
Ramu [20,21] based on Eyring relation, the exponential able from this model. However, of special interest is that
model by Fallou et al. [21,22], the probabilistic model by the equation, besides providing all relationships charac-
Montanari et al. [23], and the recent model by Crine et teristic to aging tests under combined electrical and ther-
al. [24,25]. mal stresses, also provides the electric strength variation
with time. Another characteristic point is the geometrical
E
representation of four related quantities (electric stress E ,
temperature T, electric strength ES and time t ) which
represents a hyper-surface. In addition, the universality
of this model can also be shown geometrically. When
the time factor is removed, the life surface diagram is ob-
tained, as is shown in Figure 7. If one of the two factors
(electrical or thermal stress) is removed from Equation 14,
the curve of the electric strength due to time and present
aging stress can be obtained as is shown in Figure 8.
E (109)
Figure 7.
Life surface for combined stresses using Simoni’s
t
model [19].
F ( t , E , T ) = 1 - exp [-().I t E
E,
P(E?T)
(19)
1000/T( K-' )
Figure 10.
Exponential model by Fallou; variations of char-
acteristic life with temperature at different elec- Assuming the shape parameter remains constant i.e. it
tric stresses for polypropylene-oil system [21]. is independent of electric stress @ ( E , T ) = P,(T)), this
model has five parameters ( t d ,n,, ET, v , P,) t o be deter-
Constants A I , Az, B1 and Bz are determined experi- mined experimentally. Experimental data and theoretical
mentally. Other parameters are defined in the two models life curve for this model are shown in Figure 11.
IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation Vol. 25 N o . 5 , October 1990 931
DISCUSSION
be verified. Also, the model suggests that below certain the aging process in the electrical insulation under real
threshold values life will be unhampered. Very good cor- conditions. However, with each additional stress, the
relation is reported by the authors on XLPE cable test complexity of conducting the studies and deriving appro-
data [23]. priate models increases. This is the reason these models
are mostly limited to electrical and thermal stresses ap-
The model by Crine is an innovative idea striving to plied simultaneously. Empirical expressions for the mod-
give the aging relations, until now mostly of empirical els under these two stresses evolve from single stress tests
nature, some physical meaning. And so, in this expres- and include most commonly the inverse power or expo-
sion for aging as a rate-controlled process, physical con- nential model for the electrical stress and the Arrhenius
stants (Planck, Boltzmann) and parameters (free energy, relationship of exponential character for thermal stress.
mean free path) are utilized. It appears that similar to The introduction of a new model by Crine makes a strong
other models, the extrapolation of the results to the lower statement of the need of giving the aging process, till now
fields a t operating conditions needs to be approached cau- represented by empirical expressions, a physical meaning.
tiously. Because of its relative novelty, the model, al- However, because of its relative new approach, more re-
though very promising, needs to be verified with addi- search is needed, particularly a t low fields, to give this
tional research and experimentation. model a stronger meaning.
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