Forry years ago Kluckholm and Murray[l,
From learning styles to
learning skills: the
executive skills profile
Richard E. Boyatzis
and David A. Kolb
ii,!j!i\i,i.!41
Richard E. Boyatzis and David A. Kolb are al the
Department o! Organizational Behavior, Weatherhead
School of Management, Case Western Reserve University,
Cleveland, Ohio, USA.
Contends that a typology of skills based on a framework of
leaming styles and experient1al leaming theory, rather
than a framework of job performance orsome other
personality construct, provides a /anguage and guidance
for assessment methods to describe know!edge at the
performance level of adaptation. Itrequires developrnent
of the concept of learning skills whid1 are: domain-spec1frc
and knowledge-rich; descriptive of an integrateU transac-
tion between the person and the environme11t and
developed by practice_ Rev1ews and reports data from
numerous stud1es lo establish the ESP's reliability, relation-
al validity, criterion validity and constructvalidity. The ESP
can be used as a veh1de for providing personal and
organiza11onal feedback on skills, and expectations and
in ten! regarding skills in jobs and development pro·
grammes.
Journal ol Managerral Psyc;hology
Yolume 10 Number 5 · 1995 PP- 3-17
MCB Univer>ity Press ISSN 0268-3946
3
p. l] described psychology as a search for
three diíferentkinds of order inhuman behav-
iour:
Every pCt"SQn is like cvery othcrperson in sorne
ways. Every person is like sorne other persQn in
sorne ways. Evcry person is like no othe¡- person
in sorne ways.
The concept of style has been a major vehicle
for creating typolog:ies ofindividuality; that is,
for understanding the ways in which every
person is like sorne other person. Holistic
concepts of style allow deeper srudy ofhuman
uniqueness by providing a normative descrip-
tion of a personal style a cross individuals and
an idiographic profilingin an individua] ofthe
style in relation to the other styles in the holis-
tic model. Examples ofthis approach are the
Myers-Briggs type indicator which assesses
Jungian personality types[Z], Shutz's FIRO-B
assessing interpersonal relationship orienta-
tions[3] and the Allport-Vernon[4] and
Rokeach[5] value typologies.
Learning styles and the structure of
knowledge
In experiential learningtheory[6], the model
ofstyle is based on a theory oflearning. The
theory defines fou• phases in the process of
learning from experience:
concrete exper:ience;
reflecrive observation;
abstraer conceptualization; and
active experimentation.
Individual learning styles are defined by a
person's reliance on these four learning
modes. Tuus, learning styles are siniilar to
what cognitive psycholog:ists call Jearning
strategies[7], executive control processes,
strateg:ic knowledge or cognitive strategies.
Gagne[8, p. 38] says these strategies "enable
learners to choose at appropriate times the
intellecruai skills and declarative knowledge
they will bring to bear on Jearning, remember-
ing, and problem solving". Unlike these
cognitive approaches, the experiential learn-
ing style framework is holistic, including
affective, perceprual and behavioural as well
as cognitive strate&ies.
This typology of]earning styles has al so
proved useful as a typology ofknowledge. In
this perspective, Jearning styles are higher-
Qrder heuristics for "learning hQ>V to iearn"
-----------------------"~--~-·---
>rom leorn1"g otyl~s to leaming sk1ll1· the exerutiv"~ skilt>~o~le
f11cn~rd E. 8oyaUt5 and David A Kolb
and represent the deep srrucrure of the knowl-
edge rhat is imparted in knowledge specialties
and professions.
Experiential Jearning theory describes a
three-dimensional model ofhuman knowl-
edge. The base ofthe model maps knowl.edge
specia!ties by rheir relative emphasis on the
two dimensions of concreteness versus
abstracrness and acrion versus reflection. This
map has been validated in sevei:al professions
by numerous srudies showing relationships
bet•Neen individual learning style and educa-
tional specialization, career choice and job
ro!e[9J. When knowledge specialties are
defined by the learning style heuristics used
by specialisrs in lhese fields, the pattern
arrayed on the rwo dimensions of concrete/
abstract and acrive/reftectivc is isomorphic
'.virh independent investigarions of the
structute of academic fields(l O], Ann
Roe's[l l] modcl of career sttucture,
f-Iolland's[ 12] rypology ofvocational interests
and Quinn's[JJJ madel oforganizational
va!ue and role differennation. Results are also
consistent with Finc'sf 14] functionaljob
ana!ysis system on which the Dicrionary of
Occuparional Titles[l 5] is based.
The third dimension ofthe model is inte-
gra ti ve complexity comprising the degree of
specialization and integration ofknowiedge. Ir
defines three lr.:vels of adaptation: perfor-
mance, Jearning and development. Atlhe
performance leve!, kn.owledge is discrete,
content-focused and of !imited time dura-
tion. At the leve! oflearning, the application
ofkno\Vledge is extended in time and space to
inciude generically similar sítuations. Knowl-
edge at the developmenta! leve! is organized in
the Jongest rime perspecrive and is conccmed
with the strategic control of adaptation.
Our goa! in this rcsearch is to deveJop a
languagc and assessment methodology for
describing know!edge at the peiformance levei
that is consistent with experientia! learning
theory and the knowledge sttucture modeb
described above. In earlier work, che organiza-
tion ofa pcrson's knowledgc at the level of
learning was asscssed vía the \earning sryle
inventory. The organization ofknowledge ar
the dcvelopmental /e7,'eÍ was assessed in the
adaptivc style inventory by computing the
adaptive flexibility of an individual's responses
to diffcrent Jearning situations. This article
ri:ports the development and initial validation
nf :in 1n11rt::1~e:ir dcsic-nt:J !e'• .1sscss !c::irninr:r
_ _c'°ccumalof Mana~':'.'~-''-"'-"-'"'- " - - - -
V~lume10·Number5 ¡9g5 3-0
skills at the peiformance level ofknowledge,
talled rbe "executive skills profilc".
Definition oflearning skills
A skill is a combination of ability, knowledge
and experience thar enables a person to do
something weil. A learning sk.ill defines a
generic heuristic that enables mastery of a
specific domain. Ir has nvo componenrs: a
domain of application anda knowledge trans-
formation process. Three aspects ofthis
definition are important:
(l) Skills are domain-specific ami knqw/edge-
rich. Glaser[l 6] criticized general process
approaches in education because they
ignqrc che interact:ions berweea scr11crures
ofknowledge and cognitive processes.
One example he cired was research on
expert problem solving that showed high
\evels of compc:tencc as characterized by
rich structures of domain specific knowl-
cdge rather than superior execution of a
general problem-solving process. Similar-
ly, J\.tinsky and Papert[I 7, p. 98}
described developmenrs in the field of
artificial intelligence suggesting that: "A
very intelligent person might be that way
beca use of specific local features ofhis
knowledge, organizing know!edge rather
than beca use of global qualities ofhis
thinking". The skill asscssment c:hallenge
is ro develop a skill raxonomy that is
sufficiently refincd to describe person and
job variations accurately, yt>t not so com-
plexas to defy generalization across
persons and tasks. That is a problem with
the four !earning-style modes or Fine's
data-people-things rypology. As Fleish-
man[l 8, p. 828) reported: "Rcvie\vs of
earlier work led to the conc!usion that
neithcr highly specific, nor highly general-
ized, catcgories \vere likcly to be most
use ful in generalizing principies across
tasks".
(2) A skill describes an integrated transaction
between the person o.nd the environment.
Skil!s are integrated routines comblning
knawlcdge and ability ofthe persan iNith a
perceived environmental domain of
application. This integration bet\veen
personal skill and environmental domain
allows for commensurate measurcment of
person-environment fit( l 9J.
Fleishman[l8] ca!led this an abilities
req1.11:-eme!l! :'0pro:1ch rl1rou1úl 1vhich
 From learn1ng sty1..s !o leam1ng 1kiils: the ex~ sk1lls prnfile
~l(Í!Qrd E. Boyam:; and David A r:olb
spccific environments are characterized
by their skill demands. Skilled perfor-
mance is the result of a "fit" or synergy
between personal skill and environmen-
tai demand. This congruence has been
described as an optima! experience of
flow[20]. Flow can be said to occur
when people are able to meet the chal-
lenges oftheir environment with appro-
priate skills and, accordingly, feel a sense
of we!l-being, mastery anda heightened
self-esteem. However, learning a skill
may requirc sorne separation from the
environment to a!low reflection and
generalization. In the developmental
mode, Perlmutter{21] and Kolb[6]
suggested a counter-balancing response
regarding the person-environment trans-
action which brings to thc situation the
missing perspective that allows learning
to occur.
(3) Skills are developed by practice. \Vhile
learrung sty!es vary over short periods of
time in test-retest reliability studies{22],
data on the relationship between the
learning styles of adult respondents and
their undergraduate majors suggest a
longer term, more stable
component(cf. [23]). Learning skills,
however, are developed by learning from
experience andas a resultare more vari-
able and subject to intentional personal
deve!opment. For example,
Anderson(24] described the acquisition
of cognitive skill as a "learning by doing"
system that translates declarative knov,.'J-
edge into procedural kno1.vledge. He
described the ubiquity of the log-linear
law of pracrice in skill acquisition
research. The integrated transaction
between a personal skill routine and its
domain of application is thus developcd
iteratively by learning from experience.
Fins(25] described three phascs in this
process that apply to a widc range of
skills: the cognitive swge of initial encoding
which permits the learner to genera te a
eructe approximation ofthe sk:illed behav-
iour; the assocíative srage of smoothing out
errors in performance; and the
auto7Wmous stage of gradual continued
improvement in performance.
Assessment oflearning skills:
the "executive skills profile"
The executive skills profile (ESP) is a 72-irem,
modified Q-sort(26] assessment instrument
5
Joumal of Managenal P:;ycholoqy
VolumelQ Number5·\99'i·3-17
designed for management populations in
business, education and health care. Respon-
dents are asked to sort 72 learning skill cards
twice, once into seven categories describing
rheir personal skill level anda second time
describing their job demands. Thc !earning
skills' typology is composed of 12 six-item
scales. Each scale defines a vector in the rwo-
dimensional abstractlconcrete and active/
refiective knowledge space of experiential
learning theory. Using the familiar metaphor
of a clock fa ce, vector directions are specified
by hourly clock positions, as shown in Figure
l. Eleven, twelve and one o'clock scales assess
interpersonal learning skills most associated
with the concrete experience learning mode.
l\vo, three and four o'clock assess informa-
rion slcills associatcd with reñective observa-
tion. Five, six and se ven o' dock asscss analyt-
ic sk:ills associated with abstraer conceprual-
ization. Eight, nine and ten o'c!ock assess
behavioural skills associated with active exper-
imentation.
The item wording and vector dircction of
each !earning skil\ sca!e wcrc determined by
building scales around anchoring items from
earlier research on the relationship between
!earning style and acting, valuing, thinking
and deciding skills[6, pp. 94-5). For example,
the !earning skills of dealing with pcop!c and
sensitivity to feelings fell on the 12:00 vector
with items su ch as "working as a member of a
team", and "being sensitive to others". The
5:00 vectorincluded items such as "seeing
how things fit in to the big picture". This
abstraer definirion oflearning skills as vectors
in the two--dimensional knowledge space of
experienrial learning theory allows compari-
son across thc language barriers of different
fields and jobs, while defining specifi.c learn-
ing skills in the context and language of the
field of study. In its current version, the exec-
utive skills profile is focused on management
skills. Future versions can be adapted to
assess learning skills in other fields. The
comparability offuturc versions can be
assessed by the vector congruence in the nvo-
dimensional experienrial learning knowiedge
space.
Empirical evidence
ReliabiEty and intercorrelation
The ESP has be en u sed in a number of smd-
ies, resulting in a sample of 463 adults from
the following occupational groups:
 From leammg 1tyjes to leom1ng skolls. the exeamve 1kills prot1le Joumal of Mo""91'rial P<vd1ology
Richard E BoyatzlS and David A KcHb Volume 10 · ~o/um!J.er 5 1995. 3-17

Figure 1 The executive skills profile

Concrete experience

12

i
'
'
l
' I,

',

Abstract conceptualization

1 Helping and delegating 7 Technology management

2 Adapting 8 Setting/managing to goals
3 lnformation gathering 9 Taking action
4 lnformation analysis 1O Entrepreneurship
5 Planning 11 Leadership
6 Quant1tative analysis 12 Relationship

192 ,\1BA studenrs, average age of Initial reliability ofthe scales was compured
27, one-third ofwhom were fe- \vjth Cronbach's alpha; values are shown in
males [27 ,28]; Table 1 with other descriptive statistics. The
58 female supervisory and middle-!evel skew (ranging from-0.20 to 0.40 with a mean
managers from a telecommurrications of0.03) and the kurtosis (ranging from -0.46
company[29); to 0.19 with a mean of-0.23) of each scale, in
71 malc middle-level managers and execu- addition to the reported statistics suggest
tives from two divisions of a manufacturing normal distributions. The internal scale
company[30]; reliabilities ranged from 0.676 to 0.827, with
35 mal e managers of scientists in a research an average of O. 754. Two scales were adjusted
laboratory[3 I ]; by the removal of one particular item from
33 male physician execurives[32]; ea ch scale. Por comparability to other scales,
17 superv:isory and middle-!evel the resulting seo re on ea ch of these scales was
managers from a variety ofbusinesses multiplied by 1.20.
currently serv:ing on a university advisory
board; and Relational validity
57 educators and educational administra- The sca!es were theoretically conceived to be
tors. related to those c]ose to the same part ofrhe
fi
 "rom leorn1ng style> m leamir>g sk•lls: the exeruti.,.sk•lk ptofile Joumal ot Managenal Psydml<><JV
R1d1ard E. Boyatz/5 and David A Kolb Volume\O·Numbe.-5·1995·117

'r
L·
Table 1Se ale reliab1lity and desc11ption
Clock position Sea le Mean SD Median Alpha
¡ Leadership 27.3 6.10 27.0 0.814
·' 11:00
12:00 Relationship building 30.0 5.12 30.0 0.766
' 1:00 Helping and delegating 28.6 5.68 29.0 0.794
" 2:00 Adapting 28.5 5.12 28.0 0.762
3:00 lnformation gathering 27.6 5.14 27.6 0.678
4:00 lnformation analysis 24.8 5.39 25.0 0.704
5:00 Planning 22.9 5.60 23.0 0.676
6:00 Quantitative analysis 20.0 7.32 19.2 0.827
7:00 Technology management 19.8 6.03 19.0 0.687
8:00 Setting/managing to goa!s 26.3 5.60 26.0 0.785
9:00 Taking action 27.8 5.01 28.0 0.734
,. 10:00 Entrepreneurship 30.4 5.55 30.0 0.825
Note: n= 463

underlying learning framework. Seores were
expected to be highly intercorrelated with
scales e lose to their positions on the clock. For
cxample, the 12:00 scale, called "relationship
building" skill, ;vas expected to be highly
corrclated \Virh the l 1 :00 scale, called "lcad-
ership", and the 1:00 scale, called "helping
and delegating". In contrast to sorne othcr
forros of assessmcnt instruments and
common practices in scale consuuction,
independence ofrhe scales in related positions
oflhe clock \Vas not desired.
The scales showed a high degree of inter-
corrclation >vith those scales in related clock
positions, as sho>vn in Table IL Seven ofthe
scales show their highcst correlations with an
immcdiate neighbour in the eloek positions.
enced as more "active" than reftective. Tech-
nology management is highly correlated with
information analysis. It is also highly correlat-
ed wirh quantitative ana!ysis, which is an
immediate neighbour in the clock configura-
tion. This relarionship may have more to do
1.\'lrh rhe nature ofrhe items in both scales
conceming computers and using computcrs
for analysis rhan ir does wirh any anornalies in
rhe scale relar::ionships.
.................................
' ... To get an estímate of variance -
although not unique variance - the
mean for these average correlations
.................................
was computed and squared ... '

These .,,.·ere: To esrimare rhe suengrh of rhese associations,

"leadership";
"relationship building";
"helping and delegating";
"planning";
"sett1ng and managing to goals";
"taking action"; and
"entrepreneurship" skills.
1ñ.ree scales show the highest correlation with
a scale that is one scale position away (i.e.
adjaccnt to a scale that is next to the scale in
question). These were: "informationgarher-
ing", "information analysis" and "quanrita-
tive analysis" skills.
The r....·o scales that do not confoon ro this
panero are "adapting" and "technology
management" skills. The adapting skill is rhe
most highly correlated \VÍth the entrepreneur-
ship skill: and it is highly correlaced with the
leadership and planning skills. Tltis suggests
that adapting skills may be viewed or experi-
7
the average correlation of each scale .,,.·as
computed with rhose scales rhat were located
in the next clockpositions (i.c. forlhe 12:00
scalc, its corrclation wirh the 11 :00 and 1 :00
scales was averaged), and for rhose scales,
two, three, four, five and six positions on the
clock away from cach scale. To get an estima te
ofvariance - alrhough nor unique variance -
the mean for rhese average correlations was
computed and squared. The result is rhat
scales one position away from a given scale
appear to account for 31 per cent ofrhe varí-
an ce on rhe average. Thosc two posirions
away appear to account for 22 per cent ofthe
variance. Those three, four, five and six posi-
tions away appearto account for 17, 9, 8 and
6 per cent ofrhe variance, respectively. This
supports the notion that the scales are rhe
rnost associated wirh rhose scales appearing
closest to them on the clock configuration.
 Fiom learn1ng styles to leam1nq skills: the execut1ve skill!,~rofile ~oumal of Manaqerial Psycholoqy
R•chard f_ Boyarz15 and Dav•d A. Kolb Volume10-Number5·1995 3-11

Table 11 lntercorrelation ofsca~s

Tech-
Re!ation- Helping lnfor- lnfor- Quanti- nology SettCngl Entre-
mation
ship
'"' mation
building delegating Adapting gathering analysis Planning
ta ti ve
analysis
mana ge- managing
ment togoals
Taking preneur-
action ship

Leadership 0.546 0.656 0.610 0.570 0.155 0.351 ---0.070 0.127 0.590 0.442 0.723
Relationship
building 0.736 0.482 0.604 0.098 0.195 ---0.159 ---0.005 0.460 0.428 0.456
Helping and
delegating 0.575 0.612 0.127 0.298 ---0.102 0.100 0.565 0.445 0.534
Adapting 0.588 0.400 0.600 0.145 0.261 0.570 0.431 0.708
lnformation
gathering 0.245 0.363 0.017 0.153 0.526 0.402 0.553
lnformation
analysis 0.606 0.636 0.629 0.142 0.316 0.321
Planning 0.534 0.563 0.398 0.347 0.492
Quantitative
analysis 0.614 0.073 0.159 o.oso
Technology
management 0.275 0.314 0.253
Setting/
managing to
goals 0.667 0.602
Taking action 0.545

Notes. n = 463
Correlations abo ve 0.092 are statistically s1gnificant beyond the p = 0.05 level, a11d correlations above 0.155 are significant beyond the
p = 0.001 level

Anorher test of the ESP's relational validity is
an assessment of its relationship to the under-
lying learning framework presented in the
learning style inventory (LSI). Boyatzis and
Renio[27] studied relationships between the
ESP and LSI of 148 MBA students. They
uscd rhe original nine-item form ofthe LSL
Marsick(30], Drcyfus[31], Sharp(33], anda
samp\c of 44 middlc-level and executive
managers from a manufacturing company
completed rhe ESP and the revised 12-item
form of the LSI. Thc leadership, relationship
building, and helping and delegating skills,
from the 11:00, 12:00 and 1:00 positions,
correlated significantly with a disposition
to1.vards concrete experience over abstract
conceptualization (r = 0.164, r = 0.164, and
r = 0.189, respcctively; n = 148, p < 0.02,
one-ta1led) in the MBA sample. Relationship
buildini; skill positively correlated \vich this
-,'J\-:-Cc' li'.'-:'nc;i;i,-in is rh~ C<_•n1bined ':::trnv!c
(r = 0.200, n = 124,p < 0.01, one-tai!ed).
Entrepreneurship skill, the 10:00 pc-o'tion,
correlatcd significantly w1th a disposition
towards concrete experience (r = 0.133,
n = 148,p < 0.05, one-tailcd). Therefore,
five ofthe slX scales cxpected to correlate
\VÍth this learning oricntation, did so; only
rhe adapting skill, the 2:00 position, did
not.
Quantitative analysis, thc 6:00 position,
corrclared posirively 1.vith a disposition
towards abstraer conceptualization over con-
crete experience (r = 0.192, n = 124, p < O.O 1,
one-tailed, in the combined sample:
r = 0.136, n = 148, p < 0.05, one--tailed, in the
MBA sample). Planning, the 5:00 position,
correlated positivcly with thc samc learning
disposition (r= 0.165, n = 124, p < 0.03, one-
tailed) in the combined sample. ·rwo ofthc
five sedes cxpccted to correlate with this
2:lfs1r.c: (1ric0'.tot1cn. ,lid so; inf0rm::nion
 -----
R1chara E. Boyarzi5 aod D;ivid A. Kolb
analysis, technology managemcnt, and setting
and managing to goals did not.
Taking action and entrepreneurship skills,
from the 9:00 and 10:00 positions, correlated
positively with a disposinon tOV>'ards active
experimentation o ver reflecrive observarían
(r = 0.154, n = 124, p < 0.04; r = 0.219,
n = 124, p < 0.01) from the combined sample.
Two ofthe five scales expected to correlate
\Vith this learning orientation, did so; leader-
ship, technology management, and sening
and managing to goals did not.
Of the five sca!es expectcd to correlate with
the refiective observation learning disposition
over the active experimentarion, none did.
The adapting skill, the 2:00 position, correlat-
ed positively with the opposite direction
(r = 0.146, n = 124, p < 0.05, one-tailed) in
thc combined sample. TI1e information gath-
ering skill, the 3:00 position, corre!ated posi-
tively with a concrete experience disposirion
towards learning (r = 0.163, n = 148,
p < 0.05, two-tailed) in tlle MBA sample,
,,,,.·hich was unexpected. >ro other unexpected
corrclations appcarcd. Scven scales ofthe
ESP correlared with tlle LSI in predicred
directions.
.................................
' ... skills located in the lower sector of
the dock were positively related to
the GMAT measure of scholastic
.................................
aptltude ..
Data on severa! other characteristics v.•ere
available to asscss firrther thc relationship
beDNeen tlle ESP and lhe underlying learning
orientations. In two samples of lviBA stu-
dents[27 ,28], a measure of scholastic apti-
tude, the graduare management admissions
test (G1\1AT) score, \Vas compared to ESP
seores. Skills located in the upper sector ofthe
clock were negatively related to Gl\1.AT
seores. They were:
entrepreneurship (r = --0.26 7, n = 144,
p < 0.05);
leadership (r= --0.233, n = 141,p < 0.05;
Pr= -0.201, n = 144,p < 0.05);
relationship building (r = -0.247, n = 144,
p < 0.05, r= --0.287, n = 141,p < 0.05);
helping and delegaring (r = --0.245,
n = 144, p < 0.05; r= -0.277, n = 141,
p < 0.05); and
information gatllering skllls (r = -0.305,
n = 141,p < 0.05).
9
-----'=-=c'°c'c"c'"cº~e~i~_1_"_<_''-º'-""---­
vo1ume10- Numbe<S · 1995 · 3-11
!Vleanwhile, those skills located in the lower
sector ofthe clock were positively related to
the Gl\1.AT measure of scholastic aptirude.
Theywere:
information ana!ysis (r = 0.235, n = 144,
p < 0.05);
quanritative ana!ysis (r = 0.258, n = 144,
p < 0.05); and
technologymanagement (r= 0.267,
n = 144,p< 0.05).
Since the lower sector ofthe clock was theo-
retically determined to relate roan abstract
learning orientarion and the upper sector of
the clock was theoretically determined to
relate to the opposite (i.e. a concrete learning
orientation), the rclationship to this measure
of scholastic aptitude supports the underlying
theoretical framework.
In two samples[29,3I], possessing
advanced degrees was positive!y related to
information analysis, p!anning and quantita-
tive analysis skills, and negatively related to
the setting and managing to goals skill. This
reveals a link berwccn the skills associated
with an assimilative learning orientation in
terms ofthe undedying learning framework.
This observation is consistent with studies
shomng a link bcrween attending graduare
professional schools and building those
skills[6,27 ,28].
Criterion validatíon: the boss's view
A group of 44 male upper- and middle-level
managers in a division of a manufacturing
company u sed the ESP to describe them-
selvcs. Thcir bosses, ,,,,.·ha V.'ere divisional
cxccutives, used the ESP to describe their
subordinares. The seores on the 12 scales,
when added together, forma total st:ore that
can be interpreted as a person's overall view of
the given individual's leve! of capability on
that skills assessed in the ESP, or that individ-
ual's view ofhlslher own ovcrall capability on
these skills. The boss's vic>v of thc manager's
toral score was significantly positively corre-
lated with the manager's own view (r= 0.328,
n=44,p=0.03).
A significant posirive correlation was found
berween the boss's view ofthe manager's skills
and the manager's own views ofhis skills on
eight ofthe 12 scales in the ESP. They were:
leadership;
helping and delegating;
information analysis;
 frnm leaming 1tyle1 to leaming 1k1lls: t~e exerutove skill1 profüe ~urnal o! Monagerial Psychology
---·- ------ -----
f!JCharaE. Bayarin; and David A. Kolb Vtl~10·Number5 1995·3-\7

planning; them, sening performance goals wirh them,

quantitarive analysis;
technology managemenr;
serring and managing to goals; and
entrepreneurship.
T11e correlations are shown in Table 111.
The boss's VJC\V ofthe manager's leader-
ship skill was also positively correlated with
the manager's v1ew ofhis hclping and delegar-
ing skill and his setting and managing to goals
skill. To the boss, the manager's acrions in
helping his subordinares, dclegaring work to
and managing performance through revie\V
and commentary on their goals appear as
behaviours associated \vith a leader. In part,
th1s relationship is supported by the positive
relarionship between rhe boss's view of a
manager's helping and delega¡ing behaviour
and rhe manager's own view ofhis setting
goals with subordinares and managing their
performance towards them. The negative
relationship between the boss's vie\v ofthe
manager's relationship building sk.ill and
adapting and entreprcneurship skills may

Table 111 Comparison of a manager's view (n = 44) of his skills with his boss"s views (n= 44) of his skills (~)
Boss's view of manager's skills Correlation Manager's view of own skills
Leadership 0.344ª* Leadership
11 :00 0.333ª Helpingldelegating
0.316ª Setting/managmg to goals
Relationship building --0.299" Adapting
12:00 0.078* Relationship building
--0.308ª Entreprerieurship
Hel pi ng/delegating 0.431b* Helpingldelegat1 ng
1:00 0.355ª Setting/managing to goals
Adapting 0.243* Adapting
2:00 0.344ª Setting/managing to goals
lnformation gathering 0.346ª He!pingldelegating
3:00 0.173* lnfonnation gathering
lnformation analysis 0.492'* lnfonnation analys1s
4:00 0.339ª Planning
0.453b Quantitative analys1s
0.383b Technology management
Planning 0.367b lnfonnation analysis
5:00 0.499c' Planning
0.404° Quantltative analysis
0.367ª Technology management
Quantitative analysis 0.548' lnfonnation analysis
6:00 0.354" Planning
0.641'* Quantitative analysis
0.306ª Technology management
Technology management 0.362ª lnformation analysis
7:00 0.375b Quantitative analys1s
o.sooc* Technology management
Setting/managíng to goals 0.359ª* Settinglmanaging to goals
8:00
Taking action 0.214* Taking action
9:00
Entrepreneurship 0.333ª* Entrepreneurship
10:00 0.352ª Leadership
Notes. ª"'p<0.05
b,,,p<0.01
'"'p<0.001
* Correlations of the same se ale are asterisked for ccnvenience
10
 :;.orn leam1ng ,¡ylcs to leaming 1k1ll<: !he exernnve skrlls pro lile
Richara E Boyarz15 and David A. Ka//J
result from this particular organization's
culture \Vhich, Jike many older manufacturing
companies, vic\VS attempts at adapting to the
market conditíons as threatening the stabílüy
and smooth operations ofthe plant and rela-
¡ionships with customers, suppliers and
employees that have been built over the years.
The boss's view ofthe manager's adapting
skill was positively reiated with the manager's
view ofhis own skill in setting and managing
to goals. Thc boss's view ofthe manager's
information garhering skill 1.vas related to the
manager's view ofhis own helping and dele-
gating ski!!. The boss's view ofthe manager's
information analysis skiil \Vas positively relat-
ed to the manager's view ofhis own planning,
quantitative anaiysis and rechnology manage-
ment ski lis. Thesc relationships appear to be a
function of their c!ose proximity with regard
to the underlying framework ofthe learning
styles (i.e. the assimilative quadrant ofthe
learning style framework).
The same reasoning provides an interpre-
tation far the positive relationsh1ps between:
(1) the boss's view ofthe manager's planning
skill and the manager's vie\V ofhis infor-
mation analysis, quantitative analysis and
technology management skills;
(2) the boss's view ofthe manager's quantita-
tive analysis sklll and the manager's view
ofhis informarion analysis, planning and
technology management skills;
(3) the boss's view of thc manager's technolo-
gy management skill and lhe manager's
view ofhis information analysis and
quanritative analysis skills; and
(4) the boss's view ofthe manager's entrepre-
neurship skill and the manager's own view
ofhis leadership skiil.
Criterion validation: prornotability
T1.vo studies compared the ESP seores of
managers who were prometed versus lheir
counterparts who were not promoted. Fried-
man[29] studied 55 female supervisory and
middle-level managers in a telecommunica-
tions company. The managers had bcen
employed by the company far approximate!y
the same number ofyears, were about the
same age and had similarly high performance
appraisal ratings on the company's system.
1\1arsick(30] studied 32 male midd!e-level
managers from a manufacturing company
o\·er an 18-month perrod, and compared
¡hose \Vho were promored to lhose who stayed
,,
Joumal o! Manageriol PsycholoW
··· -,-,-,,-~-·-o--Ñ-;$ni,e,s. 1995. 3-Ú- - - - -
ar the same job level and those who were
demoted.
Regarding the manager's skills,
Friedman[29] reported that promoted man-
agers had significantly higher information
analysis and planning sltills. i'vl.arsick[30]
reported that promoted managers had signifi-
cantly higher tecbnology management, tak.ing
action and entrepreneurial skills than did
those who stayed at the same job leve!. Entre-
preneurial skills ofthose who stayed the same
were also significandy higher lhan the skills of
those who were demoted.
Regarding the ESP completed concerning
the job demands ofthe managers,
.lvlarsick(29] found that those managers who
stayed at the same levels had significantly
higher seores (i.e. expectations ofjob
demands) on leadership, helping and delegat-
ing, setting and managing to goals, and taking
action skills than did those who were demot-
cd.
Marsick[30J compured a gap score by
subtracting lhe skill score from the job
demand score on each scale. The resulting
gap was thought to reflect the lack of"fit"
between the manager's skills and the job
demands or expectations. The gap was signifi-
cantly higher far those who stayed at the same
leve! than it was for those who viere prometed
on adapting, information analysis, p!anning,
technology management and entrepreneur-
ship skills. Those managers who \Vere demot-
ed had significantly greater gaps on the enrre-
preneurship skill than did those \vho srayed at
the same leve!.
.................................
.. corporate culture (i.e. shared beliefs,
values and norms in the organization)
will affect which ski lis are vaiued and
.................................
rewarded through promotion ... '
Although infonnation analysis and planning
skills appear to be important determinants of
promotabílity in both srudies, other scales
were equally important in the manufacturing
company. The observation can be made that
corporate culture (i.e. shared beliefs, values
and nonns in the organization) will affect
which skiils are valued and rewarded through
promotion. In the- manufacturing company,
Marsick[30] reported thar it was an action-
oriented culture that had been striving ro
become entrepreneurial. The company had
been restructured into small stra¡egic business
 frnm leam1ng styif!'S to leaming skill1: !he exro.rtive 1kill1 prof1le
Richard E. BoyJ12is and David A Xoib
units and so had prov:ided thc general man-
agers with a great de al of autonomy. The skill
scales in the "active" secrorofthe ESP model
were important determinants of promotabili ty
(i.e. leadership, entrepreneurship, taking
action, setting and managing to goals and
technology management skills).
It also appeared that managers who did nor
see "people management" asan important
aspect ofthcir jobs were less likely to be
allowed to stay at their current job levels. That
is, those demoted saw significantly Jess job
demands on leadership and belping and
delegating than did their peen who stayed at
the same leve1[30]. These factors could be
vie\ved as threshold characreristics. In this
campan}\ it would appear tbat ifyou did not
see the job as involving action skills and peo-
ple management, you were likely to be v:iewed
as "not qualified" to be promoted, or certainly
not vie\ved as someone \Vho "fitted inro" the
corporate culrure. Other organizations will
probably have an emphasis on those skills
mos1 valued in t:heir own cultures.
Criterion validation: managerial
performance
In a study of 35 mal e managers of scientists
and engineers ata government research facili-
ty, Drcyfus[3 l] identified a cadre of managers
who were repeatedly nominatcd by subordi-
nares, peers and t:heir bosses as highly effec-
tive managers. She also identified a random
sample fi:om a cadre ofmanagers who were
not repeatedly nominated by any ofthese
groups, as rypica] managers. She reported
that t:he highly effecúve managers showed
significantly higher seores in leadership skills,
and near-significant higher seores (on two-
tai!ed tests) on helping and delcgating, adapt-
ing and setting and managing to goals skills
t:han did the typical managers. Since t:hey
were ali in the same manager:ial role with the
same job ti tic, the differences were particular-
ly impressive in that these groups showed no
differences in their vie\\o·s ofthe demands of
the job in terms ofthe ESP scales. Although
the jobs v..-ere seen as the same, rhc more
effective managers had more people manage-
ment and adapting skiils t:han did their less
effective counterparts.
Criterion validation: faculty intent and
student outcome
Boyatzis [34] reported a study that was con-
ducted by a senior faculty comminee ata
12
!oumal ol Ma~agenal P>ychology
Volume 10 · Number 5 · 1995 · 3-17
majar research university to determine the
content and skill objectives offaculty in an
MEA programme. The ESP V,laS u sed as a
way for the faculty to describe the leve! of
importance of various skills in the design and
delivery oftheir courses. Two faculty mem-
bers were interv:iewed regarding ea ch ofthe
13 required courses and one facultymer.l:ier
was interviewed regarding 29 out ofthe .:i8
dectives offered to MBAs. A profile was
computed as to the skills emphasized by the
faculty.
Studies on students were conducted ar the
same time to determine the impacr oft:his
MBA programme in terms of various abilities
related to managerial performance over two
years with two separare samples repre~;enting
each year ofthe srudy[27 ,28]. A cross-sec-
tional design was used on census or random
samples of entering and graduating students
to determine the impact ofthe programme.
Foreign students, whose native language was
not English, were excluded from thc analysis
reported here to enable comparison without
complications due to language. In adclition to
ilie 122 students invo!ved in the firsr-year
sample and the 106 students invo!ved in the
second-year sample, a very smali longitudinal
sample of nine srudents was identified from
these random samples. The ESP was one of
the instruments used in both of these studies.
.................................
' •• .A cross-sectional design was used on
census or random samp!es of entering
and graduating students to determine
.................................
the im'.Jact ofthe programme ... '
A median split was conducred on die faculty's
intent. Ofthe six scales with the facu!ty's
highest seores, students showed statistically
significan! in creases on three of the scales for
both yearly samples and for the small longitu-
dinal samp!e. They \vere:
informarían analysis;
p!anning; and
quantitative analysis skills.
The adapting skill was high in terms offaculty
intent and showed a near-significant (on a
two-tailed test) in crease of students in the
first-year sample only.
Of the six scales reflecting lower faculty
inrenr, four ofrhe scaics sho\\o·ed no significant
effecrs on any ofthe samples. The first-year
 from 1~am1ng s1y1es to leammg SKlll<: the oxecllllve skills prol1ie Joumol o! Monagena1 PsydiolOC])'
Richard E Boyams and David A Kolb VolumelO Number5·1995·3-17

sample showed a near s1gnificant increase on technology management skills (r = 0.379,

raking action skill, and the small longitudina!
sample sho\ved a significant increase on tcch-
nology management ski]], both ofwhlch were
relatively low on lhe faculry intent split.
Faculty intent concerning abi!ities
appeared srrongly linked to student changes
in skills in lhis graduate management pro-
gramme. Boyatzis[34] nored that skiils on
wh1ch faculty intent and student increases
v;ere most c!osely aligned are also skiils
reportedly increased in studies of other gradu-
ate professional educarion programmes,
namely social work and engineering[3SJ.
Relationship to competences
Boyatzis [3S], identified a set of comperences
v:hich significantly differentiated superior and
effcctive managers from lhcir less effective
counterparts in 12 organizations. These
studies Viere conducted on managers using
performance criteria. The ski!l leve!s oflhe
competences were coded from transcripts of
critica! inc1dent interviews. Two studies •.vere
conductcd in which managers completed the
ESP anda one-hour critica! incident inrer-
view, bolh of \~:hich \vere coded for lhese
competences.
"Concern wilh impact" is a concern w1lh
onc's reputauon and \Vanring impact on
others. It appeared to be relatcd to:
lcadership (r = 0.336, n = 3S,
p < 0.05)[31];
helping and dc!cgating (r= 0.342, n = 3S,
p < O.OS)(31); and
information gathering ski lis (r = 0.270,
n = 55, p < 0.05)[29].
"Positive regard" is a belief in olhers and was
re!ated to:
entrepreneurship (r = 0.384, n = 3S,
p < 0.05);
leadership (r =0.492, n = 3S, p <O.OS);
relationship building (r= 0.368, n = 3S,
p <o.OS); and
helping and delegatingskills (r= 0.394,
n = 3S, p < 0.0S)[31].
n = 3S, p < O.OS)[31].
Except for technology management, the ESP
skills relatcd to lhese lhn:e competences are
primarily those in the upper half ofthe clock
representation. Sinee concern with impact,
positive regard and developing others are a!l
involved with people, it appears that the upper
scalcs relate to olher concepts ofpeople man-
agement, as lhe theory claims.
"Manag1ng group process" is the ability ro
build co-operation and spirit in a work group.
It was positively related to planning
(r = 0.3SO, n = 3S, p < O.OS) [31] and nega-
tively related to setting and managing to goals
ski lis (r = --0.370, n = S5, p < O.OS)[29]. In
rhese organizations, p!anning is oriented ro
projects, which are group eíforts. Setting and
managing to goals, in which the items are
primarily individually-oriented, may be
counter-productive to working in groups.
"Stamina and adaptability" was related to:
information analysis (r= 0.290, n = 55,
p <O.OS);
quantirative analysis (r= 0.440, n = S5,
p <O.OS); and
technology management skills (r = 0.260,
n = S5,p < 0.05)(29].
"Perceptual objectivity" is an ability to see
both sides of an argumenr, even ifyou are
holding one oflhose positions. This was
negatively re!ated to quantitative analysis
(r = -0.396, n =3S, p <O.OS) and technology
management skills (r = -0.338, n = 3S,
p < 0.05) (31]. Sin ce borh ofthesc ski lis are
highly abstraer in rheir orientation, it suggesrs
lhat lhe sensitivity to people needed to under-
stand lheir views n1ay be in conflict with
crearing abstraer ideas about the world.
.................................
' ... "Efficiency orientation" is an ahility
reflerted in the concern for doing
things better than previously and
attending to maximizing output per

"Developing others" is the ability to give

feedback to another for lhe purpose ofhelping
.................................
input .. .'

to improve lheir performance. It was related "Conceptualizarion" is a cognirive ability to

to: see panerns or themes in seemingly random
relarionship building (r= 0.2SO, n = 5S, information or events. It was negatively relat-
p < 0.05)(29]; ed to the taking action skill (r = -0.439,
helping and delegating (r = 0.270, n = S5, n = 3S,p < 0.05)[31]. It can be said that it is
p < 0.05)[29]; and difficult to take the time to no ti ce and concep-
13
 frnm leam1n9 ltyles 10 leammg skills: the exerutive skill> prolile
Richard E_ BoyaUi> and David A Kolb
tualize patterns in cvents ifyour orientation is
to\vards taking action.
"Efficiency orientation" is an ability
reflected in the concern for doing things
better than previously and attending to maxi-
mizing output per input. "Use of oral prcsen-
tations" is an ability to make clear, concise
and impactful presentations to others. Both of
thcse competenccs were positively related to
the entrepreneurship skill (r = 0.270 and
r= 0.250, respectively; n = 55,p < 0.05)[29]
This is a skill with which a person innovares in
hislher environment (e.g. maximizes the use
ofhis/her efforrs and time) and tries to make
things happen.
Relationship to motives
Three studies were conducted in which
people complcted the ESP and thc thcmatic
apperception test assessing unconscious
motives. Ali correlations with an n = 22 are
from Marsick(30] .•AJ! correlations with an
n = 35 are from Dreyfus(31]. All correlations
with an n = 148 are from Boyatzis and
Renio[27]. The unconscious motive ofwanti-
ng to be a part ofwarm, close rclationships is
called the "necd for affiliation" [36]. It was
negatively related to information gathering
(r=-0.164, n = 148,p < 0.05), technology
management (r= -0.340, n = 35,p < 0.05),
entrepreneurship skills (r = --0.212, n = 148,
p < 0.05) in one study and positively related to
entrepreneurial skills in anothcr study
(r= 0.398, n = 22, p < 0.05). This suggests
that a focus on information and technology
may preclude a willingness to focus on peop\c.
The unconscious motive of wanting ro do
something bettcr is called the "nccd for
achievement"(36]. It was positivcly related to
the quantitative analysis (r = 0.168, n = 148,
p < 0.05) and helping and delegating skills
(r= 0.366, n = 22, p < 0.05). People with high
need for achievement are ahvays seeking to
measure rheir performance and for feedback.
This orientation towards measurement often
results in seeking quantitative methods of
assessing performance.
The unconscious motive of\vanting to have
impact on others is called the "need for
power"[36]. lt was positively related to the
technology management skill (r = 0.414,
n = 35, p < 0.05).
".A.ctivity inhibítion", 1.vhich is a measure of
..
self-control at the trait leve! [36], 1Nas negative-
ly related to information analysis (r= -0.425,
14
Joumal of Managenal Psvchology
Volume 10 NumberS 1995 3-17
n = 35, p < 0.05), planning (r = --0.343,
n = 35,p < 0.05), taking acrion (r= -0.388,
n = 22, p < 0.05) and entrepreneurship skills
(r= -0.418, n = 22, p < 0.05).
Relationship with stylistic traits
Dreyfus(3l] compared the ESP and the
Myers-Briggs. The Myers-Briggs assesses a
person's style in terms of eight tr:iits(2). Thc
"intuition versus scnsing" oncntation revea!s
an interest in abstractions and ins1ghts imag-
ined in the future as comparcd to perceiving
objects, cvents, and deta1ls ofthe present
momenr. The inruition-sensing scale showed
a positive relationship \VÍth information analy-
sis, planning, quantitative analysis and tech-
nologymanagement skills (r = 0.459,
r = 0.560, r = 0.616, and r = 0.411, rcspec-
rively; n = 35, p < 0.05). Thcse skills represent
reftective and abstraer oricntations in tenns of
the underiying learn1ng sty!es framework and
the configuration oí thc c!ock positions of
these scales.
The "percciving versus judging" orienta-
tion rcveals a preference for observing and
understanding events ofthe outside world
rather than seeking to organ1zc or contml
them. The perceiving-judging scale showed a
positive relationship with the planning, quan-
titative analysis and tcchnology management
skills (r= 0.390, r= 0.423, and r= 0.393,
respectively n = 35, p < 0.05), anda negative
relationship with the taking action skill
(r = -0.346, n = 35,p < 0.05). These skills
represent abstrae! orientations in terms ofthc
underlying learning style frame\.\'Ork and thc
configurarion ofthe clock positions ofthese
scalcs.
Relationship with other constructs
In a sample of MBA students[27], the rela-
tionship building skill sho\.\•ed a significant
positivc correlation with the conu:nt jiiured
score from the profile of non-7.:erbal semitiviry
(r= 0.167, n = 141, p < 0.05)[37]. Since the
content filtered scorc is a mcasure of a per-
son's sensitivity to hcaring non-verbal mes-
sages from others, ir would be expected to
relate to the scale most closely involved with
re!ating to others and building relationships
with them.
In this same sample, the information gath-
ering skill showed a significant posnive corre-
lation with the seo re on the rest of thematic
únalysis (r = 0.178, n = 138, p < 0.05)_ Mean-
 'rorn learnir1g styles m l<illmrig ,k,11>0 the execu11ve sklll' protlle
Ri,hi!fCÍ f_ Boyarz1s ana David A. Kolb
\\"hile, the quantitarive analysis skill sho\.ved a
significant negative correlarion with the score
on this test (r = ---0.169, n = 138, p < 0.05).
The rest ofthematic analysis is a measure of
cognitive complexity[38,39]. Since the test
asks people to assess verbal material, it is
specifically a measure ofverbal cognitive
complexity. Building quantitative analytic
ability may extinguish or interfere with a
person's verbal ability by desensitizing the
person to verbal cues and gening out of
practice in seeing panerns in verbal informa-
tion (i.e. a negative relationship to the
quantitative analysis skill). This ability
requires an openness to collecting or being
sensitive to ali sorts of information and cu es
(i.e. a positive re!ationship to the informa-
tion garhering skill).
.................................
' ... Building quantitative analytic ability
may extinguish or interfere wlth a
person's verbal ability ... '
Sínce learning skill was defined as a combina-
tion of ability, knowledge and experience, an
association ofthe ESP scales and age might be
expected. Boyauis and Renio [27] reported
significant correlations betwcen agc and
pianning, technology managcmcnt, and
setting and managing to goals skills
(r = 0.203, r= 0.225, r = 0.162, respectively;
n = 148, p < 0.05). Boyatzis el al.[28] report-
ed a significant correlation between age and
the adapting skill (r = 0.268, n = 141,
p < 0.05). Drcyfus(31] reportcd significant
corre!ations between age and relationship
building, information gatheríng, setting and
manag1ng to goals and entrepreneurship skills
(r= 0.381, r= 0.417, r= 0.491, r = 0.440,
respcctively; n = 35, p < 0.05). Shc olso
reported o negativc correlotion between agc
and quantitative ana!ysis (r = -0.337, n = 35,
p < 0.05) that isopposite to prediction.
Therefore, eight ofthe 12 scales positively
correlate with age, as expected.
Use ofrhe ESP in developmental
activities
The ESP has been used in providing
personal feedback to individuals in a manu-
facturing company[30], a telecommunica-
tions company[29] anda research laborato-
ry[3 l] as part of management deve!opmcnt
programmes. It has also been used in career
15
!oumal ol Managerial l'sydlolOCJ'I
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Volume 10 · Number5. 1995-3-17
development, personal counselling sess1ons
w1th physicians and physician
executives[32,33]. People report the experi-
ence to be helpful in assessing their srrengchs
and weaknesses and focusing their anention
on areas to improve. In one setting, bosses'
feedback wirh the ESP also provided man-
agers with the opportunity to compare their
expectations of the job demands with those
of their bosses. This resu!ted in conversa-
tions with individual bosses about their
perceptions ofthe manager's skills, and
also the rnanager's expectations about the
job.
The ESPhas also been used In providing
feedback to people regarding aspects oftheir
organization as a whole. Boyauis[34] report-
ed its use with the faculty of a schooi of man-
agement. The feedback ofthe results ro the
faculty appeared to facilitate dlscussion of
their collective º-" ectives and the identifica-
tion of a set of shared objectives ofrheir pro-
gramme. In this case, the resuits were also
revie\ved witll other srakeholders in Ihe orga-
nization, such as the school's advisory board,
alurnni association, administration and select-
ed groups of students. In ali sessions, the
information appeared to stimulate discussion
and provide a focus on the determ1narion of
the shared objectives or intentas to the i\1BA
programme.
Summary
A typo!ogy of ski lis based on a frarnev..·ork of
learning sty!es and experiential learning
theory, rather than on a framework of job
performance or sorne other personality
construct, provided a language and
guidance for developmen¡ of an assessmcnt
method describíng kno\vledge ar the
performance leve! of adaptation. lt required
development of the concept oflearning ski lis
which are:
domain-specific and knowledge-rich;
describing an integrated transaction
between the person and envirorunent; and
developed by practice.
The ESP was designed to assess Jearning
skiils for management populations in busi-
ness, education and health care through a
typology of 12 skill sca!es. Data from numer-
ous studies which cstablished the ESP's
reliability, relational va!idity, criterion validi-
 F<om learn1n~ sryles to leam1n9 ,,,11,, the execubve 1kill1 pro file
Richard E. Boyam¡; and David A Kolb
ry and consrruct validiry, >•.'ere reviewed and
reported.
Alrhough manyofthe findings reviewed
1vere consistent with the underlying lcarning
frame\.VOrk, not ali of them were. This sug-
gests rhe need ro re-examine the items in each
scale in detail and to make revisions which
have clearer representation of rhe underlying
framework.
.................................
of
' ... Several the findings reviewed
suggested an impact of the
organization, or corporate culture, on
.................................
the ESP seores ... '
Further validation is needed. For exampie,
severa] ofrhe findings reviewed suggested an
impaet ofthe organization, or corporate
culture, on thc ESP seores. Srudies are need-
ed on rhe impact of reference groups, social
net1Norks, and organizatíona! differences to
determine the degree to which a person's ESP
seo re reftects his/her socialization in toan
organizational culture.
The ESP with its contextual comparison
can be used as a vehic!e for providing personal
and organizational feedback on skills and
expectatlons and intent regardíng ski!ls in jobs
and devciopmental programmes.
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