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Ghana Building Code Part 05pdf - Compress PDF
Ghana Building Code Part 05pdf - Compress PDF
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION
5.1 SCOPE 2
5.2 DEFINITIONS 2
5.3 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ………………… 3
5.4 DESIGN LOADS AND EFFECTS …………… 6
5.5 LIMIT STATE DESIGN ………………………… 7
5.6 DEAD LOADS …………………………………….14
5.7 LIVE (IMPOSED) LOADS DUE TO USE AND OCCUPANCY .…14
5.8 DYNAMIC LOADING …………………………..19
5.9 EFFECTS OF WIND ………………………………..21
5.10 EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE …………………..58
APPENDIX A …………………………………………… …127
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PART 5 STRUCTURAL LOADS AND PROCEDURES
5.1 SCOPE
5.1.1 This section covers all dead loads and imposed loads which shall be
sustained and transmitted by a building and certain structures without exceeding
the stress limitations specified elsewhere in the Code. It applies to:
(1) new buildings and new structures;
(2) alterations and additions to existing buildings and structures;
(3) existing constructions on change of use.
5.1.2 This part of the code does not cover
(1) loads on roads and rail bridges;
(2) loads on structures subject to internal pressure from contents,(e.g. bunkers
silos and water tanks) which should be calculated individually;
(3) loads due to machinery vibration, except those due to some gantry cranes;
(4) loads due to lifts;
(5) loads incidental to construction;
(6) test loads.
These loads are covered by specialized (proprietory) documents produced by manufacturers.
5.2 DEFINITIONS
5.2.1 Unless otherwise specified the following definitions shall apply for the
purposes of this part of the Code.
Dead Loads: The force due to the static weight of all permanent structural and
non‐structural components of a building, such as walls, partitions, floors,
roofs, fixed service equipment and all other permanent construction.
Live (Imposed) Loads: The load assumed to be produced by the intended
occupancy or use including distributed, concentrated, impact, inertia forces but
excluding wind and earthquake loads.
Wind Loads: All loads due to the effect of wind, pressure or suction.
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Earthquake Loads: All loads due to the effect of earthquake.
5.3 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
5.3.1 (1) Buildings and their structural members including formwork and
falsework shall be designed to have sufficient structural capacity to resist safely
and effectively all loads and effects of loads and influences that may reasonably
be expected, having regard to the expected service life of buildings.
5.3.1(2) All permanent and temporary structural members, including formwork
and falsework of a building, shall be protected against loads exceeding the
design loads during the construction period except when, as verified by analysis
or test, temporary overloading of a structural member would result in no
impairment of that member or any other member. In addition, precautions shall
be taken during all stages of construction to ensure that the building is not
damaged or distorted due to loads applied during construction.
5.3.2 Design Basis
Buildings and their structural members shall be designed by one of the following
methods:
(1) analysis based on well‐established principles of mechanics ;
(2) evaluation of a given full‐scale structure or a prototype
by a loading test;
(3) Studies of model analogues (modeling).
5.3.3 Deflections
(1) Structural members shall be designed so that their deflections under
expected service loads will be acceptable with regard to:
(a) the intended use of building or member;
(b) possible damage to non‐structural members and materials;
(c) possible damage to the structure itself and, where significant, the
additional effects of loads acting on the deformed structure.
(2) Deflections listed in clause 5.3.3(1) shall be taken into account in all structures
and structural members made of material susceptible to deflections,
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deformations or changes in load distribution due to creep, shrinkage or other
effects in the materials of which they are composed.
(3) The lateral deflection of buildings due to design wind and gravity loads shall
be checked to ensure that non‐structural elements, whose nature is known
at the time the structural design is carried out, will not be damaged. Except
as provided in Clause 5.3.3(4) and unless otherwise approved, the total drift
per storey under design wind and gravity loads shall not exceed 1/500 of the
storey height.
(4) The deflection limits required in Clause 5.3.3(3) does not apply to industrial
buildings or sheds if it is known by experience that greater movement is
acceptable.
5.3.4 Vibrations of Floors
(1) Special considerations shall be given to floor systems susceptible to
vibration to ensure that such vibration is acceptable for the intended
occupancy of the building.
(2) Lateral Deflections of Tall Buildings: Unusually flexible buildings and
buildings whose ratio of height to minimum effective width exceeds 4 to 1
shall be investigated for lateral vibrations under dynamic wind loading.
Lateral accelerations of the building shall be checked to ensure that such
accelerations are acceptable to the intended occupancy of the building.
(3) Stability under Compressive stress: Provision shall be made to ensure
adequate stability of a structure as a whole, and adequate lateral, torsional
and local stability of all structural parts which may be subject to
compressive stress.
5.3.5 Design drawings and Calculations
(1) Structural drawings submitted with the application to build shall bear the
signature of the designer.
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(2) Drawings submitted with the application to build shall indicate in addition to
those items specified elsewhere in other sections of Part 5, applicable to a specific
material:
(a) the name and address of persons responsible for the structural
design;
(b) the code or standard to which the design conforms;
(c) the dimensions, location and size of all structural members in sufficient
detail to enable the design to be checked;
(d) sufficient detail to enable the loads due to materials of
construction incorporated in the building to be determined;
(e) all intended uses and occupancies;
(f) all effects and loads, other than dead loads used in the design of
structural members.
(3) The calculations and analysis made in the design of the structural members, including parts and
components of a building shall be available upon request for inspection by the authority having
jurisdiction.
(4) Structural integrity: Buildings and structural systems shall provide such structural integrity,
strength or other defenses that the hazards associated with progressive collapse due to local
failure caused by severe overloads or abnormal events not specifically covered in this section
are reduced to a level commensurate with good engineering practice.
5.3.6 Inspection of Construction
(1) Inspection of the construction of any building or part thereof shall be carried out by the
designer, or by another suitably qualified person responsible to the designer, to ensure that
the construction conforms with the design.
(2) The designer or another suitably qualified person familiar with the design concept and
responsible to the designer, shall review all shop drawings and other drawings relevant to
the design to ensure conformance to the design.
(3) Workmanship and Materials: Workmanship and materials shall be inspected and all reports
of material tests shall be reviewed by the designer or another suitably qualified person
responsible to the designer during the process of construction.
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(4) Off‐site inspections: Where a building or a component of a building is assembled off the
building site, in a manner that it cannot be inspected on site, approved off‐site inspection
shall be provided when required by the authority having jurisdiction to ensure compliance
with this Code.
(5) Inspection Reports: Copies of all inspection reports shall be made available by the designer
upon request to the authority having jurisdiction.
5.4 DESIGN LOADS AND EFFECTS
5.4.1 (1) Except as provided for in Clause 5.4.2, the following characteristic loads, forces and effects
shall be considered in the design of a building and its structural members and
connections:
GK – Dead load: Is the self‐weight of the structure and the weight of finishes, ceilings, services
and partitions (see BS 6399: Part 1, Loadings for buildings. Code of practice for dead and
imposed loads) and Appendix A.
QK– Live (or Imposed or Variable) load: Due to intended use and occupancy (include loads due
to movable partitions and vertical loads due to cranes) and rain (see BS 6399:Part1 and
Table 5.6).
WK– Wind load: Depends on the location, shape and dimension of the buildings (see BS 6399:
Part 2, Loadings for buildings: Code of practice for wind loads) and Section 5.9 of this Part.
En ‐ Nominal earth loads: Earth and hydrostatic pressure, surcharge, horizontal components of
static or inertia forces (see BS 8004: Code of practice for Foundations).
E – Earthquake load (See Section 5.10 of this Part)
T – Contraction or expansion due to temperature changes, shrinkage, moisture
changes, creep in component materials, movement due to differential
settlement or combination thereof.
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5.4.2 (1) Where a building or structural member can be expected to be
subjected to loads, forces or other effects not listed in Clause 5.4.1(1);
such effects shall be taken into account in the design based on the most
appropriate information available.
(2) If it can be shown by engineering principles or if it is known from
experience, that neglect of some or all the effects due to T do not
affect the structural safety and serviceability, they need not be
considered in the calculations.
5.4.3 Structural design shall be carried out in accordance with Section 5.5 ‘Limit
State Design’.
5.5 LIMIT STATE DESIGN
5.5.1 (1) In this section the term Limit State means those conditions of a building structure
in which the building ceases to fulfill the function or to satisfy the conditions for which
it was designed.
Limit State Design admits that a structure can become unsatisfactory in various ways,
all of which need to be considered against defined limits of acceptability.
By providing sufficient margins of safety against inherent variability in loading (actions),
material properties, environmental conditions, design methods and construction
practices, limit state design aims at giving an acceptable probability that the structure
will perform satisfactorily during its intended working life.
The limit states can be placed in two categories:
(a) Ultimate limit states, which are those corresponding to maximum load‐carrying
capacity and safety of people and the structure e.g.
(i) Loss of equilibrium (overturning) of part or the whole of the structure when
considered as a rigid body.
(ii) Rupture of critical sections of the structure.
(iii) Transformation of structure into a mechanism.
(iv) Failure through excessive deformation.
(v) Deterioration arising out of fatigue effects.
(b) Serviceability limit states, which are related to the criteria governing normal use or
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durability e.g.
(i) Excessive deformations with respect to normal use of structure.
(ii) Premature or excessive cracking.
(iii) Undesirable damage (corrosion).
(iv) Excessive displacement without loss of equilibrium.
(v) Excessive vibrations.
(vi) The comfort of people.
(vii) The appearance of the structure.
(2) Characteristic loads (GK, QK, WK, En, E, T ) means those loads defined in Clause 5.4.1.
(3) Partial safety factors to the value of loads (γf), used in design in section 5.5.2 that takes account
of the possibility of unfavourable deviations of the action values, uncertainties in modeling the
effects of actions, and the significance of the particular limit state.
(4) Partial safety factors to the values of material properties (γm) used in design. This makes
allowances for sub‐standard materials or for the deterioration of materials during the life of
the structure.
(5) Action combination factor, ψ, which for imposed (variable) loads, are used in multiplying
characteristic values to obtain representative values. The use of factors ψ reduce the design
values of more than one variable load when they act together (see Table 5.3).
(6) For imposed (variable) loads, under Eurocode (see 5.3):
representative values = characteristic value x ψ
(7) In most cases, the design value of an action ( load combination) can be expressed as:
design value = representative value x γf
5.5.2 Methods of Limit State Design
5.5.2.1 Ghana, British System GS( BS 8110: Part 1)
5.5.2.1.1 Required Strength for Ultimate Limit State
(1) The required strength R provided to resist dead load GK and imposed load QK shall be at least
equal to:
R = 1.4GK + 1.6QK ……… (5‐1)
(2) In the design of a structure or member, if resistance to the structural effects of a specified wind
load WK, must be included in the design the following combinations of GK, QK and WK shall be
investigated in determining the greatest required strength R.
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R = 1.2GK + 1.2QK + 1.2WK ……… (5‐2)
where the cases of QK having its full value or being completely absent shall both be checked to
determine the most severe condition using
R = 0.9GK + 1.4WK ……… (5‐3)
In any case, the strength of the member or structure shall not be less than required by Eq. (5‐1).
(3) If resistance to specified earthquake loads or forces E must be included in the design, refer to
Section 5.10 of this Part on Effects of Earthquake.
(4) If lateral earth pressure H must be included in design the strength R shall be at least equal to
1.4GK + 1.6QK + 1.6H but where GK or QK reduce the effect of H (i.e. favourable), the
corresponding coefficients shall be taken as 0.90 for GK and zero for QK i.e. the governing
equations are:
R = 1.4GK + 1.6QK + 1.6H
R = 0.9GK + 1.6H
R = 1.4GK + 1.6QK
(6) For lateral loads F due to liquids, the provisions for Clause 5.5.2.1.1(4) shall apply, except
that 1.4F shall be substituted for 1.6H. The vertical pressure of liquids shall be considered as
dead load, with due regard to variation in liquid depth.
(6) Where the structural effects of differential settlement, creep, shrinkage or temperature T may be
significant the governing equation shall be
R = 1.2GK + 1.2QK + 1.2T
The above actions are summarized in Table 5.1
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Table 5.1 – Load combinations for Ultimate Limit State
Load Load Type
Combination Dead Load Imposed Load Earth and Wind
Adverse Beneficial Adverse Beneficial Water
pressure
1.Dead and Imposed
(and earth and water 1.4 1.0 1.6 0 1.4 ‐
pressure)
2.Dead and Wind
(and earth and water 1.4 1.0 ‐ ‐ 1.4 1.4
pressure)
3. Dead, Wind and
Imposed (and earth 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
and water pressure)
5.5.2.1.2 Values for a Serviceability Limit State
A building and its structural components shall be checked for serviceability limit
states as defined in Clause 5.5.1(b). Where more than one load contributes to the
stress in the member the combination of loads shall be assumed to be:
GK + ψ ((QK + (E or WK) + T))
Where ψ shall be equal to:
(a) 1.0 when only one of the loads QK, (E or WK) and T act;
(b) 0.70 when two of the loads QK, (E or WK) and T act;
(c) 0.60 when all of the loads QK, (E or WK) and T act.
5.5.2.2 Eurocode System GS (BS EN 1990, 1991, 1992)
One of the main differences between the Eurocodes and the British/Ghanaian system is the use of
different partial safety factors and the option to refine/reduce load factors when different load cases
are combined.
5.5.2.2.1 Required strength for Ultimate Limit State
The design loads are obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads by the appropriate partial
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safety factor, γf, from Table 5.2.
When more than one imposed load (variable action) is present, the secondary imposed load may be
reduced by the application of a combination factor, ψ0 (see Table 5.4).
The basic load combination for the required strength at ultimate limit state for a typical building is:
R = γGGK + γQQK1 + ΣγQψ0QKi
where:
QK1, QK2, QK3 etc. are the actions due to vertical imposed loads, wind load, snow etc., QK1 being the
leading action for the situation considered.
The ‘unfavourable’ and ‘favourable’ factors should be used so as to produce the most onerous
condition. Generally, permanent actions from a single load source may be multiplied by either the
‘unfavourable’ or the ‘favourable’ factor.
Table 5.2 – Action Combinations for Ultimate Limit States ( BS EN 1990: Table NA.A1.2 (B))
Option Permanent Actions Variable Actions Earth and
(Dead Loads) ( Imposed, Wind Loads) Water*
Unfavourable Favourable Leading Others( i > 1)
1 1.35GK 1.0GK 1.5QK,1 1.5Σψ0,iQK,i 1.35QK
Based on Table 5.2, a summary of Eurocode Partial Load Factors is given in Table 5.3 for
the ultimate limit state.
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Table 5.3 – Partial safety factors for loads at the ultimate limit state
Variable Actions
(a)Static
1.10 0.90 1.50 0.00 1.50 0.00
equilibrium
(b)Structural
1.35 1.00 1.50 0.00 1.50 0.00
strength
(c)As an
alternative
to (a) and (b)
above to
design for
1.35 1.15 1.50 0.00 1.50 0.00
both
situations
with one set
of
calculations
(d)Geotechni
1.35 0.00 1.35 0.00 1.35 0.00
cal strength
5.5.2.2.2 Values for Serviceability Limit State
The action (load) combination for checking the requirement at the serviceability limit
state is generally of the form:
GK + QK,1 + Σψ0,iQK,i
Where, GK, QK,1 and QK,i are permanent action (dead load), leading variable action
(imposed load) and other secondary variable actions ( where more than one imposed
load contributes to the stresses) respectively. In the case of the secondary variable
load(s), their effect(s) may be reduced by the application of the combination factors as
given in Table 5.4. The corresponding load cases for the serviceability limit states are
given in Table 5.5.
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Table 5.4 – Combination reduction factors, ψ, for buildings
Action Ψ0 Ψ1 Ψ2
Domestic, residential area 0.7 0.5 0.3
Office area 0.7 0.5 0.3
Congregation areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Shopping areas 0.7 0.7 0.6
Storage areas 1.0 0.9 0.8
Traffic area
0.7 0.7 0.6
Vehicle≤30kN
Traffic area
0.7 0.5 0.3
30kN≤Vehicle≤160kN
Roofs 0.7 0.0 0.0
Wind loads 0.5 0.2 0.0
Temperature (non‐fire) 0.6 0.5 0.0
Table 5.5 – Serviceability Load cases
Design requirement Action Permanent(Dead Variable (Imposed load)
Combinations load) Actions Actions
GK Leading QK,1 Others QK,i
Function and Characteristic 1.0 1.0 Ψ0
damage to elements,
including partitions
and finishes
User comfort, use of Frequent 1.0 Ψ1 Ψ2
machinery, avoiding
ponding of water
Appearance of the Quasi‐ 1.0 Ψ2 Ψ2
structure or element permanent
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5.6 DEAD LOADS
5.6.1 (1) Dead loads shall be calculated from unit weight given in Appendix A to this part or from
materials not provided for in that Appendix as specified or agreed upon with the
Authority having jurisdiction.
(2) When partitions are shown in plans, their actual weights shall be included in the dead
load. For all floors in which partition walls are or may be intended but are not located
on the plans, the beams and the floor slabs where these are capable of effective
lateral distribution of the load, shall be designed to carry in addition to other loads, a
uniformly distributed load per square metre of not less than one third of the weight
per metre run of the finished partitions, but not less than 1kN/m2 if the floor is used
for office purposes.
5.7 LIVE (IMPOSED) LOADS DUE TO USE AND OCCUPANCY
5.7.1 The minimum live load to be provided for shall be as set out in the Clauses of this Part, or,
where not covered by these Clauses, as specified or agreed upon with the
Administering Authority. In all cases the live load or loads shall be so placed
that in combination with dead load the maximum stresses are produced in
the member or members being designed.
5.7.2 Floor Live Loads
(1) The minimum floor live loads to be provided for shall be taken as being
equal to an equivalent uniform static Load or concentrated load whichever
produces greater stresses and shall be based on the intended use and
occupancy as set out in Table 5.6 of this Clause. The concentrated loads
applied over a specified area of a square with a 300mm side shall be
located so as to cause maximum effects.
Table 5.6 provides for normal effects of ordinary impact and acceleration
but does not include any allowance for special concentrated loads. Special
provision shall be made for moving loads other than those in garages for
machinery and other concentrated loads as set out in Section 5.8.
(2) The concentrated imposed load need not be considered where the floor
slab is capable of effective lateral distribution of this load.
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(3) All beams shall be designed to carry the distribution load appropriate to the
uses to which they are to be put as given in Table 5.6.
(4) Beams, ribs and joists spaced at not more than 1 metre centres may be
designed as floor slabs.
(5) Where in Table 5.6 no values are given for concentrated load, it may be
assumed that the tabulated distributed load is adequate for design
purposes.
(6) Where an area of floor is intended for 2 or more occupancies at different
times, the value to be used from Table 5.6 shall be the greatest value for
any of the occupancies concerned.
(7) When the occupancy of a building is changed the building shall conform to
the requirements of this part of the Code for the new occupancy.
5.7.3 Reduction in Total Imposed Floor Loads
(1) Except as provided for in 5.7.3(2) and 5.7.3(3), the reduction in assumed total
imposed floor loads defined below may be taken in designing columns, piers,
walls, their support and foundations. For purposes of 5.7.2(1) to 5.7.3(3), a roof
may be regarded as a floor.
Let, Le be the imposed load upon the roof and let L1, L2, L3 ‐‐‐ Ln be the
respective imposed loads upon the floors numbered 1, 2, 3 ‐‐‐ n starting from
the top of the building.
For the design of the points of support the following imposed loads may be
adopted:
Supports under roof LO
Supports under top floor (floor 1) LO + L1
Supports under floor 2 LO + 0.95(L1+L2)
Supports under floor 3 LO + 0.9 (L1+L2 + L3)
Supports under floor 4 LO + 0.85 (L1+L2 + L3 + L4)
The coefficient (3+n)/2n is valid for n > 5
For factories and workshops designed for 5kN/m2 or more, the reductions
shown above may be taken provided the loading assumed is not less than it
would have been if all floors had been designed for 5kN/m2 with no reductions.
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(2) Where a single span of a beam or girder supports not less than 46m2 of floor at
one general level, the imposed load may, in the design of beam or girder, be
reduced by 5% for each 46m2 supported, subject to a maximum reduction of
25%. This reduction or that given in 5.7.3(1), whichever is greater, may be
taken into account in the design of columns or other type member supporting
such a beam.
(3) No reduction shall be made for any plant or machinery which is specifically
allowed for or for buildings for storage purposes, warehouses, garages and
those office areas which are used for storage and filing purposes.
5.7.4 Roof Live Loads other than Wind Loads or Rain Loads.
(1) Flat Roofs
Flat roofs to which there is no direct access (except only such cases as is
necessary for cleaning and repairs) shall withstand an imposed load of
0.25kN/m2 measured on plan or a load of 0.9kN concentrated on a square
with 300mm side whichever produces the greater stress.
(2) On flat floors where access (in addition to that necessary for cleaning and
repair) is provided to the roof, allowance shall be made for an imposed load
of 1.5kN/m2 measured on plan or a load of 1.8kN concentrated on a square
with a 300mm side.
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Table 5.6 ‐ Uses and Loads
Concentrated Load to be applied
Occupancy or Use
Intensity of Distributed Loads unless otherwise stated over any
(kN/m2) square with a 300‐mm side
2
(kN/m )
1. Residential
Multifamily house 4.0 4.5
Private apartments 2.0 1.8
Public rooms 5.0 ‐
Corridors 4.0 4.5
2. Dwellings
Not exceeding 2 storeys 1.5 1.4
Exceeding 2 storeys 2.0 1.8
3. Hotels
Guest rooms 2.0 1.8
Public rooms 5.0 4.5
Corridors serving public rooms 5.0 4.5
Corridors above first floor 4.0 4.5
4. Office buildings
Areas (not including computer rooms) located in basement and
first floor 5.0 4.5
File, rooms in offices 5.0 4.5
Floors above first floor 2.5 2.7
Area with computing data processing and similar equipment 3.5 4.5
Toilet rooms 2.0 ‐
5. Assembly areas with fixed seats
including :
Auditoria
Churches 4.0 ‐
Courtrooms
Lecture halls
Theatres and other areas
with similar uses
6. Assembly areas without fixed seats including :
Arenas
Balconies
Dance floors
Dining areas
Foyers and entrance hall
Grandstands
Reviewing stands
Gymnasia
Museums
Stadia
Stages and other areas with
similar uses 5.0 3.6
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7. Drill rooms and Drill halls 5.0 9.0
8. Garage for passenger cars unloaded buses and light trucks not
exceeding 2500kg including driveways and ramps 2.5 9.0
All repair workshops for all types of vehicle and parking for To be determined but not less To be determined but not less than
vehicles exceeding 2500kg gross weight including driveways than 5.0 9.0
and ramps
9. Libraries
Reading and study rooms without book storage 2.5 4.5
Rooms with book storage (eg. Public lending libraries) 4.0 4.5
Stack Rooms 2.4 For each metre stack 7.0
height with a minimum of 6.5
10. Schools and Colleges
Classrooms 3.0 2.7
Dormitories 1.5 1.8
Gymnasia 5.0 3.6
Kitchens To be determined but not less 4.5
than 3.0
Laboraties including equipment To be determined but not less 4.5
than 3.0
11. Hospitals
Bedrooms and Wards 2.0 1.8
Laundries 3.0 4.5
Toilet rooms 2.0 ‐
Utility rooms 2.0 4.5
X‐ray room and Operating
theatres 2.0 4.5
12. Factories
Light 5.0 4.5
Medium 7.5 6.7
Heavy 10.0 9.0
13. Warehouses
General storage space in industrial and commercial buildings 10.0 9.0
(Note: For concentrated loads Pigeaud’s or Westergaard’s theory may be used)
(3) Sloping Roofs up to angle of 65o to the horizontal shall withstand an imposed
load of 0.25kN/m2 measured on plan or a vertical load of 0.9kN concentrated
on a square with 300mm side whichever produces the greater stress.
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(4) Curved Roofs
The imposed load on a curved roof shall be calculated by dividing the roof
into not less than five equal segments and then by calculating the load on
each, appropriate to its mean slope in accordance with 5.7.4(1) to 5.7.4(3).
(5) Roof coverings and purlins at a slope of less than 450 shall be capable of
carrying a load of 0.9kN concentrated on any square with 125mm side.
5.8 DYNAMIC LOADING
5.8.1 Where loads arising from machinery, runways, cranes and other plant
producing dynamic effects are supported by or communicated to the
framework, allowance shall be made for these dynamic effects, including
impact, by increasing the dead‐weight values by an adequate amount. In
order to ensure economy in design, the appropriate dynamic increase for
all members affected shall be ascertained as accurately as possible.
5.8.2 The minimum design load due to equipment, machinery on other objects or
persons that may produce impact, is the total weight of equipment or
machinery plus its maximum lifting capacity, or appropriate live load,
multiplied by an appropriate factor listed in Table 5.7; except in cases
where the actual multiplying factor has been supplied by the manufacturer
or supplier of the equipment in which case this factor shall be used in lieu
of those listed in Table 5.7. Where dynamic effects such as resonance and
fatigue are likely to be important as a result of vibration of equipment or
machinery, a dynamic analysis shall be carried out.
Table 5.7 ‐ Impact Loads
Impact due to Factor
Operation of motor driven cranes 1.25
Operation of hand driven cranes 1.10
Live loads on hanger supported floors and stairs 1.33
Supports for light machinery, shaft or motor driven 1.20
Supports for reciprocating machinery or power driven units 1.50
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5.8.3 The minimum horizontal design loads on cranes runway rails are:
(a) Lateral force which shall be:
(i) for power operated crane trolleys, 20% and for hand operated trolleys, 10% of the
sum of the weights of the lifted loads and of the crane trolley excluding other parts
of the crane;
(ii) applied at the top of the rail, one‐half in each side of the runway, and
(iii) considered acting in either direction normal to the runway rail.
(b) Longitudinal force which shall be:
(i) 10 percent of the maximum wheel loads of the crane, and
(ii) applied at the top of the rail.
5.8.4 (1) Loads on Railings
The minimum design load applied horizontally at the top of a railing which guards a drop of more
than 460mm shall be:
(a) 5.8kN/m for exterior balconies of individual residential units and a concentrated load of
0.9kN applied concurrently;
(b) 1.5kN/m for exits and stairs;
(c) 2.2kN/m for assembly occupancies, except for grandstands and stadia;
(d) 3.6kN/m for grandstands and stadia including ramps;
(e) 4.4kN/m for vehicle guard rails for parking garages applied 530mm above
the roadway and minimum total load of (11kN) uniformly
distributed over each vehicle space applied 530mm above the
roadway, and
(f) O.6kN concentrated load applied at any point for industrial catwalks and
other areas where crowding by many people is very improbable.
(2) The minimum design load applied horizontally to panels under railings which
guard a drop of more than 460mm shall be 1.0kN/m2.
(3) The minimum design load applied vertically at the top of a railing which guards a
drop of more than 460mm shall be 1.5kN/m acting separately from the
horizontal load provided in Clause 5.8.4(1).
(4) Grandstands and any building used for assembly purposes to accommodate large
numbers of people at one time shall be designed to resist all inertia sway forces
20
produced by use and occupancy of the building or structure. The inertia force
shall be not less than 0.30kN/m of seat parallel to each row of seats or
0.2kN/m of seat perpendicular to each row of seats.
5.9 EFFECTS OF WIND
5.9.1 Scope
This Subsection deals with methods for calculating wind loads that should be taken
into account when designing buildings, structures and components of buildings
and structures.
It does not apply to building or structures whose light weight, low frequency and
1ow damping properties make them susceptible to vibration.
5.9.2 Definitions
Unless otherwise specified, the following definitions shall apply for the purposes
of this Subsection.
1. Breadth: The dimension of the building normal to the direction of the wind.
2. Depth: The dimension of the building measured in the direction of wind.
3. Height: The height of a building above the ground adjoining that building.
4. Length: The greater horizontal dimension of a building above, the ground
adjoining that building; or the length, between supports, of an individual
structural member.
5. Width: The lesser horizontal dimension, of a building above the ground
adjacent to that building, or the width of a structural member across the
direction of the wind.
6. Height above ground: The dimension above general level of the ground to
windward.
7. Element of Surface Area: The area of surface over which the pressure
coefficient is taken to be constant.
8. Effective Frontal Area: The area normal to the direction of the wind or
‘shadow area’.
9. Dynamic Pressure of Wind: The free dynamic pressure resultant from
the design wind speed.
10. Pressure Coefficient: The ratio of the pressure acting at a point on a
21
surface to the dynamic pressure of the incident wind.
11. Force Coefficient: A non‐dimensional coefficient such that
the total wind force on a body is the product of the force
co‐efficient multiplied by the dynamic pressure of the
Incident wind and the appropriate area as defined in
text.
12. Topography: The nature of the earth’s surface as
influenced by the hill and valley configurations.
13. Ground Roughness: The nature of the earth’s surface as influenced by
small‐scale obstruction such as trees and buildings (as distinct from
topography)
Note: Breadth and Depth of a building are to the direction of
wind. Length and Width are dimensions related to the plan form.
5.9.3 Nomenclature
A = element of surface
Ae = effective frontal area
b = breadth
Cf = force coefficient
Cfn = normal force coefficient
Cft = transverse force coefficient
1
Cf = frictional drag coefficient
Cp = pressure coefficient
Cpe = external pressure coefficient
Cpi = internal pressure coefficient
d = depth
D = diameter
F = force
Fn = normal force
Ft = transverse force
F1 = frictional force
h = height
H = height above ground
22
j = width of member as indicated in diagram
ja = width of member across direction of wind
k = a constant
K = reduction factor
l = length
p = pressure on surface
Pe = external pressure
Pi = internal pressure
B = total load intensity
q = dynamic pressure of wind (stagnation pressure)
Re = Reynolds number
S1 = topography factor
S2 = ground roughness, building size and height above ground
factor
S3 = a statistical factor
V = basic wind speed
Vs = design wind speed
w = width of building
1
w = bay width in multi‐bay buildings
α = wind angle (from a given axis)
= aerodynamic solidity ratio
ημ = shielding factor
v = kinematic viscosity
Ø = geometric solidity ratio
5.9.4 Procedure for calculating Wind Loads on Structures
(1) The wind load on a structure should be calculated for:
a) the structure as a whole;
b) individual structural elements such as roofs and walls;
c) individual cladding units and their fixings.
(2) In the case of partially completed structures, the wind load will depend on the
method and sequence of construction and may be critical. In calculating the
temporary higher wind loads, the maximum design wind speed Vs may be
assumed not to occur during the short construction period and a reduced
23
factor S3 used. It is recommended that the graphs of Fig.5.6 should not be
extrapolated for periods less than two years.
(3) The assessment of wind load should be made as follows:
a) The basic wind speed V appropriate to the area where the structure
is to be erected is determined as specified in 5.9.5(2)
b) The basic wind speed is multiplied by factors S1, S2 and S3 to give the
design wind speed Vs (see 5.9.5(3)).
Vs = V S1 S2 S3
c) The design wind speed is converted to dynamic pressure q = kVS.2
Table 5.11 gives corresponding values of q and Vs
d) The design external pressure or suction at any point on the surface
of the building is given by:
p = Cpq
A negative value of Cp indicates suction. The resultant load on an
element or cladding depends on the algebraic difference of the
external pressure or suction and the internal pressure or suction
may be calculated from:
F = (Cpe – Cpi)qA
A negative value of F indicates that the resultant force is outwards.
The total wind load on a structure may be obtained by a vectorial
summation of the loads on all the surfaces.
e) Where a value of force coefficient, Cf, is available, the total wind
load on the building as a whole is more conveniently obtained from:
F = CfqAe
Pressure coefficients are given in Tables 5.14 and 5.20 for a range of
building shapes. Force coefficients are given in Tables 5.21 to 5.25
for unclad structures.
24
5.9.5 Design Wind Speed, VS
(1) General: The design wind speed Vs should be calculated from
Vs = VS1 S2 S3
The basic wind speed table is specified in 5.9.5(2) and the factors S1, S2, S3
in 5.9.5(3).
(2) Basic Wind Speed:
a) The basic wind velocity is the maximum 3‐second gust speed at a
height of 10m above ground likely to be exceeded on the average
not more than once in 50years, in open country. The values are
shown by isophleths (line of equal wind speed) on the map in Fig.
5.1. Table 5.8 gives basic wind speeds to be used in some major
towns in Ghana.
b) It should be assumed the wind may blow from any direction.
Table 5.8 ‐ Basic Wind Speed (in metres per second)
for some major towns
m/s
1. Accra 29
2. Takoradi 29
3. Kumasi 36
4. Tamale 34
5. Ada 34
6. Saltpond 29
7. Axim 29
8. Ho 29
9. Akuse 34
10. Kete – Krachi 38
11. Wenchi 38
12. Yendi 45
13. Wa 44
14. Navrongo 35
15. Bole 36
25
Fig. 5.1: Wind Speeds (m/sec)
26
(3) Wind Speed Factors
(a)Topography Factor, S1: The basic wind speed, V, takes account of the
general level of site above sea level. This does not allow for local
topographic(orographic) features such as hills, valleys, cliff escarpments or
ridges, which can significantly affect the wind speed in their vicinity.
The factor S1 is a measure of the enhancement that occurs in wind speeds
over hills, cliffs and escarpments.
The effect of topography is to accelerate wind near the summit of hills or
crests of cliffs, escarpments or ridges and decelerate the wind in valleys or
near the foot of cliffs, steep escarpments or ridges.
Table 5.9 gives recommended values of S1
Table 5.9 ‐ Topography Factor S1
Topography Description Value of S1
category
1 All cases except in 2 and 3 below 1.0
2 • Very exposed hillslopes and
crests where acceleration of
wind is known to occur.
• Valleys shaped so that funneling 1.1
of wind may occur.
• Sites that are known to be
abnormally windy due to some
local influence.
3 Steep sided enclosed valleys, sheltered 0.9
from all winds.
27
(i)Effect of a Cliff or Escarpment on the Equivalent Height above ground.
The value of S1 in Table 5.9 can be explicitly calculated for the effect of a cliff or
escarpment at a site.
The effect of topography will be significant at a site when the upward slope (θ)
is greater than 3°( or 0.05 slope), and below that, the value of S1 may be taken
to be equal to 1.0. The value of S1 varies between 1.0 and 1.36 for slopes
greater than 3°.
The influence of the topographic feature is considered to extend 1.5Le upwind
and 2.5Le downwind of the summit or crest of the feature, where Le is the
effective horizontal length of the hill depending on the slope as indicated in
Fig. 5.2. The values of Le for the various slopes are given in Table 5.10.
If the zone downwind from the crest of the feature is relatively flat (θ < 3°) for a
distance exceeding Le, then the feature should be treated as an escarpment.
Otherwise, the feature must be treated as a hill or ridge.
The topography factor is given by:
S1 = 1+ C .s
where C has values appropriate to the height H above mean ground level and
the distance x from the summit or crest relative to the effective length Le as
given in Table 5.11.
The factor, s, is determined from Fig. 5.3 for cliffs and escarpments and Fig.5.4
for ridges and hills.
Table 5.11 – Variation of effective horizontal length of hill Le and factor C,
with slope, θ
Slope,θ Effective horizontal length, Factor, C
Le
3°< θ≤ 17 L 1.2(Z/L)
>17° Z/0.3 0.36
Note: L is the actual length of the upwind slope in the wind direction, and Z is the effective
height of the feature.
28
29
Fig. 5.2: Topographical dimensions – (a) Hill and Ridge, (b) Cliff and
Escarpment
30
31
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3
32
(b) Ground Roughness, Building Size and Height above ground, Factor S2
The effect of wind on a building, structure or part thereof depends on
ground roughness variation of wind with height above ground and size of
building or component under consideration. The factor S2 takes account of the
influences on wind effect listed above.
(i) Ground Roughness
The ground roughness has been divided into three categories and buildings
and their elements into three classes as follows:
Ground Roughness 1: Open, level or nearly level country with no obstructions.
Examples are most of the coastal region outside major urban and sub‐urban
areas, air fields and areas surrounding the Volta Lake.
Ground Roughness 2: Open country with few trees and houses. Examples are farmland and
most of the areas of the North and Upper Regions outside major urban centres.
Ground Roughness 3: Areas covered by large obstructions. Examples are forest areas,
towns and their suburbs. Fig. 5.5 shows areas of the country outside major towns and suburbs
where the different categories should be generally applicable.
(ii)Cladding and Building size
Natural winds are turbulent and continually fluctuating. There is evidence available that for
buildings and components of buildings more susceptible to the action of wind, the 3‐second
gust speed should be used in design while for other buildings a longer averaging time could be
used. As a consequence of this, 3 classes have been selected.
Class A: All units of cladding, glazing and roofing and their immediate fixings and individual
members of unclad structures.
Class B: All buildings and structures where neither the greatest horizontal dimension nor the
greatest vertical dimension exceeds 50m.
Class C: All buildings and structures whose greatest horizontal dimension or greatest vertical
dimension exceeds 50m.
The value of S2 for variation for wind speed with height above ground for various ground roughness
categories and building size classes are given in Table 5.12. The height to be used for the
33
determination of S2 should be taken as the height from the mean ground level adjoining the building
to the top of the building. Alternatively, the structure may be divided into convenient parts and wind
load on each part calculated, using S2 factor that corresponds to the height above ground of the top
of the part. The dynamic pressure should be assumed to act uniformly over the structure or part
respectively.
(c) Factor for building life, S3
The factor S3 takes into account the intended life‐span of the building or structure and the
acceptable calculated risk. There is always an element of risk that a given design wind speed may be
exceeded in a storm of exceptional violence. The greater the life‐span of the structure, the greater
the risk. Fig. 5.6 shows values of S3 equivalent to a period of exposure of 50 years plotted against
intended life span or design life in years.
Normally, wind loads on completed structures and buildings should be calculated at S3 = 1 except
for:
(i) temporary structures;
(ii) structures where a longer period of exposure to wind may be required;
(iii) structures where greater than normal safety is required.
The period of exposure should never be taken as less than 2 years.
Example: Calculate the design speed for a tower 20m high, situated in a well wooded area (
roughness category 3) and for 100‐year probable life near an abrupt escarpment of height 35m. The
tower is located around Ho. The crest of the escarpment is 10m effective distance from the plains.
The tower is located on the downwind side, 5m from the crest.
Tan θ = 10/35 = 0.2857, θ = 15.74
X = +5 Le = 10m H = 20m X/Le = +5/10 = +0.5 H/Le = 20/10 = 2
Basic wind speed for Ho, V = 29m/s ( Fig. 5.1, Table 5.8)
S3 factor for 100 yr probable life with probability level of 0.63 = 1.05 (Fig. 5.6)
S2 factor for 20m for a well –wooded area (ground roughness category 3)(Class B) = 0.90 (Fig.
5.5,Table 5.12)
S1 factor for topography:
For X/Le = +0.5 and H/Le = 2 ( Fig. 5.2); s factor from Fig. 5.3 is = 0.05
34
From Table 5.11, factor C = 1.2Z/Le = 1.2x20/10 = 2.4
→ S1 = 1 + C x s = 1+ 0.05 x 2.4 = 1.12
→Design wind speed = Vs = V x S1 x S2 x S3
= 29 (1.12)(0.9)(1.05) = 30.7m/s
Note on Fig. 5.6
For example, using the graph for probability level 0.63 for a period of exposure equal to 100 years say, S3 = 1.05 i.e. there
is the probability level of 0.63 that a speed which is 1.05 times the once in 50 years wind speed obtained from Fig. 5.1
will be exceeded at least once in 100 years.
5.9.6 Dynamic Pressure of the Wind
Using the value of the design speed Vs obtained from section 5.9.5, the dynamic pressure of the
wind q above atmospheric pressure may be calculated from
where: k = 0.613 in SI units( N/m and m/s)
Table 5.13 gives corresponding values of Vs and q.
35
Table 5.12 ‐ Ground Roughness, Building size and Height above ground, Factor S2
Table 5.13 ‐ Values of q in SI Units (N/m2)
V s
(m/s) 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
10 61 74 88 104 120 138 157 177 199 221
20 245 270 297 324 353 383 414 447 481 516
30 552 589 628 668 709 751 794 839 885 932
40 981 1030 1080 1130 1190 1240 1300 1350 1410 1470
50 1530 1590 1660 1720 1790 1850 1920 1990 2060 2130
60 2210 2280 2360 2430 2510 2590 2670 2750 2830 2920
70 3000
(Note: To determine q for a speed of say 33 m/s look under 3 along the row corresponding to 30 which gives q = 668
N/m2).
36
5.9.7 Pressure Coefficients and Force Coefficients
(1) General: The force on a building or structure or part thereof is obtained by multiplying the
dynamic pressure by a coefficient that is dependent on the shape of the building or structure
and by the area of the building or structure or part thereof.
The two types of coefficients are:
(a) pressure coefficient Cp which refers to a particular surface or part of building;
(b) force coefficient Cf which refers to the building as a whole. The values of these
coefficients are given in Tables 5.14 to 5.23. These tables may be used for other
buildings of generally similar shape.
(2) Pressure Coefficients: The average values given in the tables are for critical wind directions in
one or more quadrants. In order to determine the maximum wind load on a building the total
load should be calculated from each of the surfaces or parts of the surfaces of the building.
Coefficients of local effects are also given. These are to be used in calculating loads for local areas
but not for calculating the load on entire structural elements such as roof and walls. In such
locations, the construction must be adequate to resist the local forces (additional nailing,
anchoring etc.).
Furthermore, it should be noted that these local forces can act in a shaking manner and
result in fatigue failures.
The net design load due to wind on individual cladding and their fixings, roofs and walls should be
the algebraic difference of the external pressure or suction and the design internal pressure or
suction from:
F = ( Cpe – Cpi ) qA
Values of Cpe are given in Tables 5.14, 5.15, 5.16 and values of Cpi in section 5.9.7(3).
(3) Internal Pressure Coefficient: It is normally difficult to estimate the internal pressure coefficient
for a building as the coefficient depends on permeability through windows, ventilation louvres,
leakage gaps around doors and windows and cladding. It is recommended that for wall and roof
loading the internal pressure coefficient should be determined as follows:
37
(a) Where there is only negligible probability of dominant opening occurring during a severe
storm, should be taken as +0.2 or ‐0.3 whichever produces the greater effect on the
building or member concerned.
(b) Where a dominant opening is likely to occur, should be taken as 7.5% of the value of
outside the opening.
(4) Force Coefficients: Force coefficients vary for the wind acting on different faces of a building or
structure. In determining the critical load, the total wind load should be calculated for each wind
direction . The total wind load on a particular building or structure is given by:
F = Cf q Ae
The direction of the force is specific in the table.
Where the wind load is calculated by dividing the area into parts, the value of Cf applied to each part
should be that for the building as a whole.
(6) Frictional Drag: For certain types of buildings it is necessary to take into account a frictional
drag in addition to the wind load calculated from 5.9.7(2) and 5.9.7(4). The frictional drag
may be neglected for rectangular clad buildings where the ratio d/h or d/b is greater than 4.
The frictional drag in the direction of the wind is given by the following:
if h ≤ b, F’ = Cf’q b(d‐4h) + Cf’q 2h (d – 4h)
or
if h ≥ b, F’ = Cf’q b(d – 4b) + Cf’q 2h (d – 4h)
The first term in each formula represents the drag on the roof and the second the drag on
the walls.
= 0.01 for smooth surfaces without corrugations or ribs across the wind direction.
= 0.02 for surfaces with ribs across the wind direction.
0. = 0.04 surfaces with ribs across the wind direction.
For other buildings the frictional drag will be indicated, where necessary, in tables of
pressure coefficients and force coefficients.
38
Table 5.14: Pressure coefficient Cpe for walls of Rectangular clad buildings
BUILDING BUILDING ELEVATION PLAN WIND Cpe for surface Local Cpe
h/w ≤ ½
1<l/w≤ 3/2
90 ‐0.6 ‐0.6 +0.7 ‐0.25
1/2<h/w≤3/2
C 0 +0.7 ‐0.3 ‐0.7 ‐0.7 ‐1.1
3/2<l/w≤ 4
90 ‐ 0.5 ‐0.5 +0.7 +0.1
1<l/w≤ 3/2
90 ‐0.8 ‐0.8 +0.8 +0.25
3/2<h/w≤6
C 0 +0.7 ‐0.4 ‐0.7 ‐0.7 ‐1.2
Note: h is the height to eaves or parapet, l is the greater horizontal dimension of a building and w is the lesser horizontal dimension of a building
39
Fig. 5.15: External pressure coefficients (Cpe) for Pitched roofs of rectangular clad
buildings
40
41
Table 5.16: Pressure coefficient Cfe for monopitch Roofs of rectangular clad buildings
with h/w < 2
42
Table 5.17: Force coefficients (Cf) for Rectangular clad (acting in the direction of the wind)
43
Table 5.18: Pressure coefficients (Cpe) for Pitched Roofs of Multi‐span buildings
(all spans equal) with h ≤ w
44
Table 5.19: Pressure coefficients (Cpe) for Saw‐tooth Roofs of multi‐span buildings
(all spans equal) with h ≤ w
45
Table 5.20: Pressure coefficients (Cp) for Canopy Roofs with 1/2 ≤ h/w < 1
46
Table 5.21: Force coefficient (Cf) for clad buildings of uniform section
(acting in direction of wind)
47
Table 5.21 (cont.)
48
Table 5.21 (cont.)
49
Table 5.22: Pressure distribution around Cylindrical structures
For the purpose of calculating the wind forces that act in a way as to deform a cylindrical structure
the values of Cpe in Table 5.22 may be used. They apply only in supercritical flow (i.e. they should
only be used where D > 0.3m). They may be used for wind blowing normal to the axis of cylinders
having their axis normal to the ground plane (i.e. chimneys, silos) and to cylinders having their axis
50
parallel with the ground plane (i.e. horizontal tanks) provided the clearance between the tank and
the ground is not less than D.
h is the height of a vertical cylinder or length of a horizontal cylinder. Where there is a free flow of
air around both ends, h is to be taken as half the length when calculating h/D. Interpolation may be
used for intermediate values of h/D.
In the calculation of the load on the periphery of the cylinder, the value Cpi shall be taken into
account.
For open ended cylinders where h/D 0.3; Cpi may be taken as ‐0.8.
For open ended cylinders where h/D 0.3; Cpi may be taken as ‐0.5
5.9.8 Force Coefficients for Unclad Structures
(1) General: This section applies to permanently unclad structures and structural frameworks
while temporarily unclad.
Structures that because of their size and the design wind velocity, are in the supercritical
flow regime may need further calculation to ensure that the greatest loads do not occur at
some wind speed below the maximum when the flow will be subcritical.
(2) Force coefficients of individual members: The coefficients refer to members of infinite
length. For members of finite length, the coefficients should be multiplied by a factor K
that depends on the ratio l/ja, where l is the length of the member and ja is the width
across the direction of the wind. Values of K are given in Table 5.23.
Where any member abuts onto a plate or wall in such a way that free flow of air around
that end of the member is prevented, the ratio l/ja should be doubled for the purpose of
determining K. When both ends of a member are so obstructed, the ratio should be taken
as infinity.
51
Table 5.23 ‐ Values of Reduction Factor K for members of finite length
and slenderness
l/ja or l/D 2 5 10 20 40 50 100 ∞
Circular cylinder, subcritical flow 0.58 0.62 0.68 0.74 0.82 0.87 0.98 1.0
Circular cylinder, supercritical flow 0.80 0.80 0.82 0.90 0.98 0.99 1.0 1.0
Flat plate perpendicular to wind 0.62 0.68 0.69 0.81 0.87 0.90 0.95 1.0
5.9.8(3)(a) Flat–sided members: The force coefficient in Table 5.24 are given for two mutually‐
perpendicular directions relative to a reference axis on the structural member. They are designated
Cfn and Cft and give the forces normal and transverse, respectively, to the reference plane as will be
apparent from the diagrams.
Force coefficients are for wind normal to the longitudinal axis of the member.
Normal force: F = Cfn qklj
Transverse force: F = Cft qklj
(b) Circular sections: For circular sections, the force coefficients Cf, which are dependent upon values
of DVs, are given in Table 5.25. The values of Cf given in this table are suitable for all surfaces of
evenly distributed roughness of height less than 1/100 diameter i.e. for all normal surface finishes
and for members of infinite length.
Force, F = Cfqkld
52
Table 5.24: Force coefficients Cfn and Cft for individual structural members (flat sides) of
infinite length
53
Table 5.25 ‐ Force Coefficients Cf for individual structural members of
Circular Section and Infinte Length
Flow regime Force coefficient Cf
6 DVs 12m2/s
DVs 33m2/s
Reynolds number, Re > =
where: D is the diameter of the member
Vs is the design wind speed, and
v is the Kinematic viscosity of the air, which is 1.6 x 10‐5 m2/s at 15oC and standard
atmospheric pressure.
(c) Wires and cables: The force coefficients for wires and cables given in Table 5.26 are dependent
upon values of DVs.
Table 5.26 ‐ Force Coefficients Cf for Wires and Cables (1/D >100)
Flow Regime Smooth Moderately wire Fine stranded Thick stranded
surface wire (galvanized or cables cables
painted)
DVs 0.6m2/s ‐ ‐ 1.2 1.3
DVs 0.6m2/ ‐ ‐ 0.9 1.1
54
(4) Single frames: In general, the most unfavourable wind load on a single frame occurs when
the wind is at right angles to the frame.
The wind load acting on a single frame should be taken as
F = Cf q Ae
where; Ae is the effective area of frame normal to the wind direction.
The force coefficients for a single frame consisting of (a) flat‐sided members or (b) circular
section members in which all the members of the frame have DVs value less or greater than
6m2/s are given in Table 5.27.
Table 5.27 ‐ Effective Force Coefficients Cf for Single Frames
Force coefficient Cf for:
Solidity ratio Ø Flat – sided members Circular Sections
Subcritical flow Supercritical flow
2
DVs 6m /s DVs 6m2/s
0.1 1.9 1.2 0.7
0.2 1.8 1.2 0.8
0.3 1.7 1.2 0.8
0.4 1.7 1.1 0.8
0.5 1.6 1.1 1.4
0.75 1.6 1.5 1.4
1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
The solidity ratio Ø is equal to the effective area of a frame normal to the wind direction divided by
the area enclosed by the boundary of the frame normal to the wind direction.
(5) Multiple frame structures: This section applies to structures having two or more parallel frames
where the windward frame may have a shielding effect upon the frames to leeward. The wind
load on the windward frame and any unsheltered parts of other frames should be calculated as
in 5.9.8(3), but wind load on the parts of frames that are sheltered should be multiplied by a
shielding factor n, which is dependent upon the solidity ratio of the windward frame, the type of
member comprising the frame and the spacing ratio of the frames. The values of the shielding
factor are given in Table 5.28.
Where there are more than two frames of similar geometry and spacing, the wind load on the
third and subsequent frames should be taken as equal to that on the second frame.
55
Table 5.28 ‐ Shielding Factor, n
Value of n for an aerodynamic solidity ratio of:
Spacing 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 &
Ratio
over
Up to 1.0 1.0 0.96 0.90 0.80 0.68 0.54 0.44 0.37
2.0 1.0 0.97 0.91 0.82 0.71 0.58 0.49 0.43
3.0 1.0 0.97 0.92 0.84 0.74 0.63 0.54 0.48
4.0 1.0 0.98 0.93 0.86 0.77 0.67 0.59 0.54
5.0 1.0 0.98 0.94 0.88 0.80 0.71 0.64 0.60
6.0 and over 1.0 0.99 0.95 0.90 0.83 0.75 0.69 0.66
The spacing ratio is equal to the distance, centre to centre, of the frames, beams or girders divided
by the least overall dimension of the frame, beam or girder measured at right angles to the direction
of the wind.
Aerodynamic solidity ratio, = solidity ratio (Ø) x a constant
where the constant is:
1.6 for flat‐sided members;
1.2 for circular sections in the subcritical range and for flat‐sided members in conjunctions
with such circular sections;
(6) Lattice Towers:
(a) Lattice towers of square and equilateral triangular sections constitute special cases for
which it is convenient to use overall force coefficient in the calculation of wind load. The wind
load should be calculated for the condition when the wind blows against any face.
The wind load acting in the direction of the wind should be taken as:
F = Cf qAe
The overall force coefficient Cf is given in Tables 5.29, 5.30 and 5.31.
56
Table 5.29 ‐ Overall Force Coefficient Cf for Towers composed of
Flat‐sided members
Solidity ratio Force coefficient of for:
Square towers Equilateral triangular towers
0.1 3.8 3.1
0.2 3.3 2.7
0.3 2.8 2.3
0.4 2.3 1.9
0.5 2.1 1.5
For square lattice towers the maximum load occurs when the wind blows on to a corner.
It may be taken as 1.2 times the load for the face–on wind.
For triangular lattice towers the wind load may be assumed to be constant for any
inclination of the wind to face.
(b) Since it is only in very few cases with lattice towers composed of members of circular
section that all the members of a lattice tower are entirely in either subcritical or
supercritical flow, wind force calculations should be carried out as described in 5.9.8(4) for
single frames, due account being taken of the shielding factors in 5.9.8(5).
When it can be shown that all the members of the tower are wholly in the same flow
regime the overall force coefficients Cf given in Tables 5.29 and 5.30 may be used.
Solidity ratio of a frame = Ø. For lattice steel towers, Ø typically varies between about 0.1 and
0.3
57
Table 5.30 ‐ Overall Force Coefficient Cf for Square Towers composed of
Rounded Members
Solidity ratio of front Force coefficient Cf for:
face, Ø Subcritical flow Supercritical flow
2
DVs < 6m /s (45ft mile/h) DVs ≥ 62/s (45ft mile/h)
onto face onto corner onto face onto corner
0.05 2.4 2.5 1.1 1.2
0.1 2.2 2.3 1.2 1.3
0.2 1.9 2.1 1.3 1.6
0.3 1.7 1.9 1.4 1.6
0.4 1.6 1.9 1.4 1.6
0.5 0.4 1.9 1.4 1.6
Table 5.31 ‐ Overall Force Coefficient Cf for Equilateral Triangular Towers
composed of Rounded members
Solidity ratio of front Force coefficient of for:
face, Ø Subcritical flow Supercritical flow
2
DV < 6m /s(45ft mile/h) DV≥ 62/s (45ft mile/h)
all wind directions all wind directions
0.05 1.8 0.8
0.1 1.7 0.8
0.2 1.6 1.1
0.3 1.5 1.1
0.4 1.5 1.1
0.5 1.4 1.2
58
5.10 EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
5.10.1 SCOPE AND FIELD OF APPLICATION
5.10.1.1 This Code sets down minimum design requirements to be met when dealing with
seismic situations i.e. situations in which the earthquake action is considered as a critical
action in conjunction with other dead loads or live loads. It applies to:
(1) Reinforced and Prestressed concrete buildings for ordinary uses, having structural
resisting systems belonging to one of three types defined below:
(a) Frame System: A system in which both vertical loads and lateral forces are
resisted by space frames.
(b) Wall System: A system in which both vertical loads and lateral forces are resisted
by structural walls either single or coupled.
(c) Dual System: A system in which support for vertical load is essentially provided
by a space frame. Resistance to lateral action is contributed to, in part, by the frame
system and also in part by structural walls, isolated or coupled.
5.10.2 DEFINITIONS AND NOTATIONS
Definitions
Cross‐tie: A continuous bar with a minimum diameter of 6mm, having a 1350 hook with a
ten‐diameter extension at one end, and a 900 hook with a six diameter extension at the other end.
The hooks shall engage hoop bars and be secured to longitudinal bars.
Hoop: A closed tie or continuously would tie with a minimum diameter of 6mm the ends of which
have 1350 hooks with ten‐diameter extensions that encloses the longitudinal reinforcement.
Boundary elements: Portions along the edges of walls and diaphragms strengthened by
longitudinal and transverse reinforcement. Boundary elements do not necessarily require an
increase of thickness of the wall or diaphragms. Edge openings within walls and diaphragms may
also have to be provided with boundary elements.
59
Notations
A = peak ground acceleration
Ac = confined area measured to outside peripheral transverse reinforcement.
Ag = gross sectional area of concrete
Cd = design seismic coefficient
Cg = centre of mass
Ck = centre of stiffness
E = design seismic action (symbolic)
I = importance factor
Mu,d = ultimate moment of a concrete section, evaluated with factored values of concrete and
steel strengths
M+u,d = ultimate moment of a concrete section, evaluated with characteristic values of concrete
and steel strengths.
Nd = design axial force under the most unfavourable load combination including the seismic
action.
K = behaviour factor
S = site coefficient
Si = soil type index
Vcd = shear force carried by concrete in beam or column sections
a = plan dimension of the building in the direction orthogonal to that of seismic action
bw = web width of a concrete section
h,b = height and width of beams, major and minor sides in columns
h’, b’ = distance between reinforcement bars located at the ends of sides in and b, respectively,
measured to outside the peripheral bars
60
d = distance from centre of stiffness and centre of gravity of the generic floor
Sh = spacing of transverse reinforcement in beams, columns and walls.
fcd = design concrete strength
h = height of a floor
lw = horizontal wall length
hw = total height of a wall
hn = vertical distance between floors in walls
α = spectral amplification factor
β = parameter of the elastic response spectrum
γi = distribution factor
γn = over‐capacity factor
Δel = elastic interstorey drift under the seismic actions
ζ = ratio between maximum and minimum shear force at a beam end
Θ = deformability index
ξ = amplification factor for torsional effects
w = dynamic magnification factor
τRd = shear design stress of concrete
61
5.10.3 DESIGN CRITERIA
5.10.3.1 Reliability Differentiation
Structures shall be classified under the following reliability levels:
(1) Class I: Buildings that are required to remain functional and to suffer reduced
damage after a strong seismic attack (e.g. essential rescue facilities such as
hospitals, fire and police stations, electricity stations etc. buildings with likely large
number of occupants such as schools, audience or spectacle halls, etc).
(2) Class II: Buildings not included in 5.10.3.1 (1)
(3) The different reliability levels proper to each Class shall be obtained by amplifying
the design action with a factor I, called importance factor.
5.10.3.2 Ductility Levels
Structural systems covered by the Code may be designed to possess different ‘ductility’
levels according to the following classification:
(1) Ductility Level I (DL I) ‐ is that proper to structures proportioned in accordance to BS
8110 (1985) with additional requirements on detailing contained in 5.10.8.
This ductility level, I is suitable for low rise buildings.
(2) Ductility Level II (DL II)‐ for this level seismic provisions are to be adopted, enabling
the structure to enter the inelastic range of response under repeated reversed
loading, while avoiding premature brittle‐type failures.
(3) Ductility Level III (DL III) ‐ special procedures for the evaluation of design action and
for the proportioning and detailing of the elements are to be adopted to ensure the
development of selected stable mechanisms associated with large energy dissipation
capacities. DL III structures should be preferred whenever large uncertainties exist
(e.g. Local amplification effects of difficult evaluation etc).
62
5.10.4 METHODS OF ASSESSMENT
5.10.4.1 Basic data
5.10.4.1.1 Material Characteristics
5.10.4.1.1 (1) Concrete
Normal concrete grades shall satisfy the following requirements (Table 5.10.4.1)
Table 5.10.4.1
Ductility Level Minimum Grades
DL I C20
DL II C20
DL III C25
5.10.4.1.1(2) Steel
(a) DL I and DL II Structures
The reinforcing steel is defined by its characteristic strength.
(b) DL III Structures
The following additional requirements shall be satisfied.
(i) It must be proven the steel used possesses adequate ductility under
repeated reversed deformations.
(ii) Steel grades with characteristic strengths higher than S400 (400N/mm2)
shall not be used, unless it is demonstrated that the use of higher grades in
special section arrangements does not affect unfavourably the ductility.
(iii) The actual yield stress shall not exceed its normal values by more than 15%.
63
(iv) The ratio of the mean value of the ultimate strength to actual yield stress
shall not be less than 1.25 for S220 and 1.15 for S400
(v) Only high bond steel shall be used for flexural reinforcement, unless
adequate provisions are taken to ensure bond and anchorage.
5.10.4.1.2 Material Safety Factor, γm
Design values of strength for concrete and steel shall be obtained from their respective
characteristic values by using the factors:
Concrete γ c = 1.5
Steel γ s = 1.15
5.10.4.1.3 Structure Behaviour Factors
(1) The values of the behaviour factor K, defining the intensity of the design action
(section 5.10.5.3) as a function of the structural type and of the selected ductility
level, are given in Table 5.10.4.2
Table 5.10.4.2 DESIGN BEHAVIOUR FACTORS
Frame 2 3.5 5
Wall and Dual 2 3 4
(2) The values of K in Table 5.10.4.2 for wall and dual structures apply if, at least 50% of
the lateral force in both directions is resisted by coupled walls.
(3) If condition 5.10.4.1.3(2) is not satisfied, the K values for wall and dual structures
shall be reduced by a factor of 0.7.
(4) Ductility Level I is permitted only for Class II structures in areas of moderate
seismicity.
64
(5) Class I structures to be built in high seismicity areas shall be preferably designed for
ductility level III. If appropriate, K values relative to DL II could be used in this case.
5.10.4.1.4 Design Load Combination
The fundamental combination of load effects to be used for limit states verification (Section
5.10.7.4) is
Sd = S (G + P + E + ∑ψi Qik) ... 5.10.4.1.1
where G = all permanent loads at their normal value
P = the long‐term prestressing force
E = the design seismic action as defined in Sect .5.10.5.3.4
Qik = fractile values of extreme distributions of all live loads whose duration of
application is long enough for the probability of their joint occurrences with
earthquake action to be considered.
ψ I = factors required to change the fractile values Qik to the average values of Qik
in their instantaneous distribution (See Table 5.10.4.3)
S = Site Co‐efficient
Table 5.10.4.3: COMBINATION FACTOR ψ I FOR LIVE LOADS
Live loads from persons and equipment 0.3
Live loads from persons at places with likelihood of
0.5
large number of occupants (halls)
Long term storage (warehouse, libraries) 0.9
Live loads on staircases and corridors 1.0
65
5.10.4.2 Structural analysis
5.10.4.2.1 Building Configuration
A building shall be classified as regular when the following conditions are satisfied, regarding
both plan and vertical configuration.
(a) Plan Configuration
(i) The building has an approximately symmetrical plan configuration with
respect to, at least two orthogonal directions along which the earthquake
resisting elements are oriented. When re‐entrant corners are present, they
do not exceed 25 percent of the building external dimension.
(ii) At any storey the distance (measured in the direction orthogonal to that of
the seismic action) between the centre of mass and that of the stiffness
does not exceed l5% of the ‘resistance radius’ defined as the square root of
the ratio of storey torsional and translation stiffnesses.
(b) Vertical Configuration
(i) The stiffness and mass properties are approximately uniform along the
building height.
(iii) In the case of a gradual setback along its height, the setback at any floor is
not greater than l0% of the plan dimension in the direction of the setback.
This clause need not be complied with if the setback occurs within the lower
l5% of the total height of the building.
5.10.4.2.2 Application of Seismic Action
(1) Horizontal Action
(i) The seismic actions shall be applied to the building in the directions
producing in each element the most unfavourable effect.
66
(ii) In buildings having one axis of symmetry, the seismic action can be assumed
as acting separately along this axis and its orthogonal direction
(2) Vertical Action
(i) The vertical component of the seismic action shall be considered in the
design of non‐vertical cantilevers and of prestressed beams.
5.10.4.2.3 Analytical Model
(1) The determination of the seismic effects on the structure shall be based on an
idealized mathematical model which is adequate for representing the actual
behaviours; the model shall also account for all non‐structural elements that can
influence the response of the main resisting system.
(2) For the purpose of the present code, the determination of the load effects due to
design forces may be based on a linear elastic model of the structural system.
(3) Regular buildings can be designed according to the simplified method of analysis
(indicated as equivalent static analysis) described in 5.10.4.2.4 provided their height
does not exceed 80m, and the fundamental period is shorter than 2 secs.
(4) If conditions in 5.10.4.2.3.(3) are not satisfied or if the building is of irregular type,
the dynamic method in 5.10.4.2.5 shall be applied.
5.10.4.2.4 Equivalent Static Analysis
(1) Horizontal Design Forces
(a) The design lateral force to be applied at each floor level in the direction
being analysed, shall be given by:
where Cd = design seismic co‐efficient, equal in value to the design response
spectrum, as given in Section 5.10.5.3.4
γ =
i distribution factor, depending on the height of the floor,
measured from the building base
67
Wi = total gravity load at floor i
(b) In cases where the period T is not calculated from methods of mechanics Cd
shall be taken as:
1
C = I . A . S .α .
... 5.10.4.2.2
d
K
(c) γi
The distribution factor γi is given by the following expression
∑W i
... 5.10.4.2.3
γ i = hi
∑ W i hi
where hi is the height of floor i from the foundation level.
(2) Torsional Effects
(a) At each floor of the building, the lateral design force shall be assumed to be
displaced from its nominal location at the distances e1 and e2 illustrated in
Figure 5.10.4.1, which ever is most unfavourable for every member to be
checked.
Fig. 5.10.4.1 ‐ Torsional Effects
(b) The expressions for e1 and e2 are:
e2 = 0.05 a ... 5.10.4.2.5
68
(c) The total shear force and torsional moment at the generic floor shall be
distributed to the various resisting elements below that floor with due
consideration of their relative stiffness as well as of the stiffness of the
diaphragm.
(i) the lateral design force shall be applied at the floor centre of gravity,
to be distributed to the various elements as above;
(ii) the actions in each of the elements shall be further multiplied by a
factor ξ defined as:
... 5.10.4.2.6
x
ξ = 1 + 0.6
a
where x is the distance of the element from the floor centre of gravity,
measured perpendicularly to the direction of seismic action.
(3) Second Order Effects
(a) Second‐order effects on storey shears and moments need not be considered
when the following condition is satisfied at every floor:
W . Δe l . K
Θ= ≤ 0.10
V .h
where Θ = deformability index
V = seismic design shear force acting across the storey considered
∆el = elastic interstorey drift due to design action
K = behaviour factor
h = floor height
W = total gravity load above the considered storey
69
(b) The deformability index, Θ shall not in any case exceed the value 0.20;
(c) For 0.10 < Θ < 0.20 second order effects shall be accounted for by means of
one of the statistical methods indicated in BS 8110 (1985).
5.10.4.2.5 Modal Analysis Procedure
(1) Modelling
(a) If the building can vibrate in two orthogonal directions without significant
coupling, it can be analysed by means of two separate planar models, one
for each orthogonal direction
(b) The condition stated in 5.10.4.2.5(1) (a) shall be assumed to occur when
5.10.4.2.1(a) (ii) is satisfied.
(c) When 5.10.4.2.1(a)(ii) is not satisfied the model shall account for the non‐
planar motion of the structure
(2) Modes
(a) In the case of planar models, the analysis shall include for each of the two
orthogonal axes at least the lowest three modes of vibration, or all modes of
vibration with periods greater than 0.4 secs., whichever is greater.
(b) For non‐planar models the analysis shall include for each direction of seismic
action, at least four modes, two of them predominantly translational and
two predominantly rotational, or all modes of vibration with periods greater
than 0.4 secs., whichever is greater.
(c) The mode considered shall be those with the greatest participation
coefficients for the direction under consideration
(3) Combination of Modal Responses
The response quantities (force, displacements etc) separately obtained for each
mode under the effect of the design response spectrum given in Section 5.10 5.3.4
shall be combined to obtain their corresponding design values by taking the square
root of the sum of the squares of modal values.
70
(4) Torsional Effects
(a) At each floor of the building the mass contributing to inertia forces shall be
assumed to be displaced from its nominal location by the amount "0.05a”
whichever is more unfavourable for the element to be checked, ‘a’ being the
dimension of the building in the direction orthogonal to that of the
considered seismic action.
(b) When the building is analysed by means of planar models (Clause 5.10.4.2.5
(1)), torsional effects can be accounted for by increasing the action effects due
to the translational oscillations of the building by the factor ξ defined as:
ξ = 1 + 0.6 x/a
where x is the distance of the planar element considered from the floor centre
of gravity, measured perpendicular to the direction of the seismic action.
(5) Second ‐ order effects
Clause 5.10.4.2.4 (3) applies.
71
5.10.5 SEISMIC ACTION
5.10.5.1 Seismic Zones
For the application of this Code, a seismic risk map (Fig 5.10.5.1) has been used to discretize
the area of Ghana into a number of zones. Within each zone the normalized ground
acceleration is assigned a constant value as shown in Table 5.10.5.1.
Fig. 5.10.5.1 ‐ Seismic Risk Map Of Ghana
72
Table 5.10.5.1: DEFINITION OF SEISMIC ZONES
Assigned Horizontal Design
Seismic Ground Acceleration: A
Zone
(g units of gravity)
0 0
1 0.15
2 0.25
3 0.35
5.10.5.2 Characteristics of Seismic Actions
(1) For the purpose of the code, the ground motion shall be adequately described by
means of:
(b) one or more response spectra for horizontal motion, having a form
appropriate for the area and firm soil conditions, normalized to Amax = 1 and
probabilistically characterized;
(c) one or more response spectra for vertical motion, scaled to 2/3 of the
correspondence horizontal motion response spectra.
(2) For particular zones, for instance, where geological evidence indicates the possibility
of ‘near field’ type of shocks (for which the response spectrum concept is
inadequate) or where there is extensive and deep soil layering (for which selective
amplification can occur) the expected characteristics of ground motion shall be
determined by special studies.
73
5.10.5.3 Design Seismic Action
5.10.5.3.1 Normalized Elastic Response Spectrum
For the purpose of this Code, the shape of the ‘standard’ (rocky or firm soil condition)
elastic response spectrum normalized to a unit peak ground acceleration shall be idealized
as shown in Fig. 1.4.2.
Fig. 5.10.5.2 ‐ Normalised Elastic Response Spectrum
5.10.5.3.2 Site Effects
When more detailed knowledge of the effects of local soil conditions and on the
characteristics of ground motions arriving at the site from possibly different sources is not
available the procedure in Clause 5.10.5.3.2 (1) and (2), and 5.10.4.4.3 shall be applied.
(1) Soil Profile Types
The effects of site conditions on building response shall be established based on the
soil profile types defined as follows:
i SOIL PROFILE S1:
Rock of any characteristic either shale‐like or crystalline (such material may be
characterized by a shear wave velocity greater than 800mm/sec); or stiff soil
conditions where the soil depth is less than 60m and the soil type overlying
rock are stable deposits of sands gravel or stiffer clays.
74
ii SOIL PROFILE S2:
Deep cohesionless or stiff clay soil conditions, including sites where the soil
depth exceeds 60m and the soil types overlying rock are stable deposits of
sands, gravels or stiff clay.
iii SOIL PROFILE S3:
Soft‐to‐medium stiff clays and sands, characterized by l0m or more of soft‐
medium stiff clay with or without intervening layers of sand and other
cohesionless soils.
In locations where soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to determine the soil profile type
or where the profile does not fit any of the three types, soil profile S2 shall be used.
(2) Site Co‐efficient
The site co‐efficient S is used to modify the standard elastic response spectrum to account for the
site condition. Its values are given in Table 5.10.5.2
Table 5.10.5.2: SITE COEFFICIENT
Soil Coefficient Soil Profile Type
5.10.5.3.3 Site ‐ Dependant Normalized Elastic Response Spectrum
The site‐dependant normalized elastic spectra for the three soil profiles are shown in Fig
5.10.5.3, their ordinates being defined as the smallest from the following expressions:
R as = 1 + (α – 1). T/T1
R as = α for soil types S1, S2, S3
= 0.8α for soil S3 if A, as defined in Clause 5.10.5.3.4, is greater than 0.3g
R as = S. α. ( T/T1)β
75
In case of lack of specific site‐related information the following can be assumed
T1 = 0.12 secs T2 = 0.4 secs
α = 2.5 β = 2/3
However, for soil type S3 the value T1 = 0.25 secs. can be adopted.
Spectra for vertical motions may be determined with sufficient accuracy by multiplying the
ordinates of the spectra for horizontal motions by a factor of 2/3.
Fig 5.10.5.3 ‐ Site Dependent Normalized Elastic Spectra
5.10.5.3.4 Design Response Spectrum
The ordinates of design response spectrum are given by the smallest of the following
expressions:
1
R a (T) = I . A .α . ( )
K for soil type S1, S2 and S3, or
1
R a (T) = 0. 8 . I . A . α . ( ) for soil type S3 if A > 0.3g
K
T2 β 1
R a (T) = I . A . α . S . ( ) .( )
T K
76
Where:
I is the importance factor defined in Section 5.10.3.1(3) (see Table 5.10.5.3)
A is the peak ground acceleration to be adopted for the seismic zone of interest (% of g ‐
Table 5.10.5.1)
S is the site coefficient as given in Table 5.10.5.2
K is the behaviour factor given in Table 5.10.4.1.3
In the case of lack of specific site‐related information α, β and T2 are assigned the following
values:
α = 2.5, β = 2/3, T2 = 0.4 secs.
Table 5.10.5.3: IMPORTANCE FACTOR
Class Factor
I 1.4
II 1.0
5.10.6 DESIGN ACTIONS
5.10.6.1 General
Structural elements shall be dimensioned and verified (see section 5.10.7) for design actions
as defined in this section.
5.10.6.2 Ductility Level I: DL I
DL I structures shall be dimensioned directly on the basis of the results of structural analysis,
with a possible redistribution of action effects in accordance with BS.8110 (1985)
5.10.6.3 Ductility Level II: DL II
(1) Elements subject to bending ( N d ≤ 0 . 1 . A g . f cd )
(a) Bending moments:
77
The design bending moments shall be those obtained from linear analysis of the
structure for the load combination given by equation 5.10.4.1.1. Redistribution
according to BS.8110 (1985) is permitted.
(b) Shear Forces:
(i) The design shear forces shall be determined from the condition of static
equilibrium of the element subjected to the relevant transverse load, if any,
and a rational combination of the end moments.
(ii) The end moments shall correspond to the design flexural strengths of the
end actions based on actual reinforcement provided.
(iii) The algebraic ratio between the maximum and minimum values of shear at
each end section shall be denoted by ζ . The value of ζ should not be taken
less than minus one (Fig. 5.10.6.1).
VA,d = VA,d + MA + M1B ζVA,d = VA,d ‐ M1A + MB
78
(2) Elements Subject to bending and axial force ( N d > 0 . 1 Ag . f cd )
(a) Axial forces and bending moments
(i) For regular structures, three storeys and higher, to which equivalent static analysis
has been applied, the column moment due to lateral forces alone shall be multiplied
by the dynamic amplification factor w as given by the following expressions:
Planar Frames
w = 0.6 T1 + 0.85 (1.3 < w < 1.8) .... 5.10.6.1
Spatial Frames
w = 0.5 T1 + 1.10 (1.5 < w < 1.9) .... 5.10.6.2
where T1 is the fundamental period of the structure.
(ii) The values of the dynamic factor w given in 5.10.6.3(2)(a)(i) are applicable to storeys
within the upper two‐thirds of the building height. Below this level a linear variation
of w should be assumed: the value at first floor level should be taken as 1.3 and 1.5
for planar and spatial frame respectively (Fig 5.10.6.2).
Fig. 5.10.6.2 ‐ Values of Dynamic Factor at Various Floors
79
(iii) Column moments in addition shall satisfy the condition on the relative strength between
columns and beams framing into a joint as specified in Clause 5.10.7.1(3).
(b) Shear Forces
(i) In evaluating the design shear forces from the condition of static equilibrium the
design end moments shall be those producing maximum shear force obtained from
analysis, modified if appropriate by the dynamic magnification factor.
(3) Structural Walls
(a) The design actions shall be those obtained from a linear analysis of the building
modified as appropriate in accordance with Clauses 5.10.6.3(1)(b) to 5.10.6.3(3)(c).
(b) Redistribution
(i) The distribution of the total force to the various walls, as obtained from the elastic
analysis may be modified provided the global equilibrium is maintained and the
maximum value of the action in any wall is not reduced by more than 30%
(ii) In a coupled wall, the elastic shear force in the coupling beams can also be modified
with a maximum reduction of 20% provided that corresponding increases in the
shear capacities of beams at other floors are made.
(c) Bending Moment Design Envelope
The design moments along the height of the wall shall be those given by a linear
envelope of the calculated moment diagram, vertically displaced by a distance equal
to the horizontal length of the wall. (Fig. 5.10.6.3)
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Fig5.10.6.3 ‐ BENDING MOMENT DESIGN ENVELOPE
(d) Earthquake Induced Axial Load in Coupled Walls
(i) The design axial load in the walls due to the lateral action shall be computed using
the shear strengths of the coupling beams above the section considered, calculated
by using characteristic values of concrete and steel strength.
(ii) The shear strength of the beams calculated in 5.10.6.3(3)(d)(i) shall be further
amplified by a factor of 1.25
(e) Dynamic Magnification Factors
(i) Where the equivalent static analysis is adopted, the shear forces in the walls shall be
magnified by the dynamic amplification factor w as given by the expression below
for buildings up to 5 storeys high
w = 0.1N + 0.9......... 1.5.3
where N is the number of storeys
(ii) For walls taller than five storeys, w, shall be linearly increased up to the value of
w =1.8 for N = 15
81
5.10.6.4 Ductility Level III : DL III
(1) Elements subject to bending ( N d ≤ 0 . 1 . A g . f cd )
(a) Bending moments: The design bending moments shall be those obtained from linear
analysis of the structure. Redistribution according to BS 8110 (1985) is permitted.
(b) Shear Forces:
(i) The design shear forces shall be determined from the conditions of equilibrium of the
element subjected to the relevant transverse loads, if any, and to a rational adverse
combination of end moments, as specified in 5.10.6.4(1)(b)(iii)
(ii) The end moments shall correspond to the design flexural strengths of the end sections
based on actual reinforcement provided, multiplied by the factor γ n = 1.25
(iii) The algebraic ratio between the maximum and minimum values of shear force at a
section shall be denoted by ζ . For the purposes to follow, the value of ζ should
not be taken smaller than minus one.(Fig 5.10.6.4)
VA,d = VA,d + MA + M1B ζVA,d = VA,d ‐ M1A + MB
L L
82
(a) Axial forces and bending moments
(i) The axial forces and bending moments to be used for column design shall be determined
from a linear analysis of structures, eventually redistributed according to BS 8110 (1985).
(ii)For regular structures, three storeys and higher, to which equivalent static analysis has been
applied, the column moment due to the lateral forces alone, shall be multiplied by the dynamic
magnification factor, w, as given by the following expressions:
Planar frames:
w = 0.6 T + 0.85
(1.3 ≤ w ≤ 1.8
) 5.10.6.4
1
Spatial frames:
w = 0.5 T 1 + 1.10 (1.5 ≤ w ≤ 1.9 )
5.10.6.5
where T1, is the fundamental period of the structures.
(iii) The values of the dynamic factor, w as given in 5.10.6.4(2)(a)(ii) are applicable to storeys
within the upper two‐thirds of the building height. Below this level a linear variation of, w,
should be assumed; the value at first floor level should be taken as 1.3 and 1.5 for planar
and spatial frames respectively. (Fig 5.10.6.5)
83
Fig. 5.10.6.5 ‐ Values of Dynamic Factor
(iv) Column moments shall satisfy the condition on the relative strength between columns and
beams framing into a joint (see 5.10.7.1 (3))
(b) Shear forces
(i) In evaluating the design shear forces from the conditions of static equilibrium the design end
moments shall be the most adverse ones as obtained from the analysis of the structure.
(ii) The end moments as calculated above shall be further amplified, if appropriate by the dynamic
magnification factors, and by the γ n factor: γ n = 1.10
(3) Beam ‐ Column Joints
(a) The design actions shall be those induced in the joint when the design ultimate
moments of the beam or beams multiplied by a factor γn, equal to 1.25 are developed,
except in cases when hinges are permitted to form in the columns (see Clause 5.10.7.1 (3))
The axial force in the column shall be the minimum corresponding to the design
seismic actions.
84
(b) Horizontal Shear Force (Vjh)
(i) Interior Joint (see Fig. 5.10.6.6)
The shear force Vjh across a typical interior joint without prestressing may be calculated
from:
V jh = γ n ( As1 + As2 ) f yd - V col
........ 5.10.6.6
where
Vcol =2 l1 .M1 + l2 M2 / ( lc + l’c) ......... 5.10.6.7
l1n l2n
with
l1, l2 = centre to centre span of adjacent beams
l1n ,l2n = clear spans of adjacent beams
lc, l'c = centre to centre upper and lower column heights
respectively.
As1, A s2 = top and bottom steel in beam
85
Fig. 5.10.6.6 Design Shear Actions at Beam – Column Joints
(ii) External joints
For external joints equation 1.5.6 still applies while equation 5.10.6.7becomes
⎛ l ⎞
V col = 2 ⎜⎜ 1 . M 1 ⎟⎟ / ( l c + l ′c )
⎝ l 1n ⎠
5.10.6.8
(c) Vertical Shear Force (Vjv)
The vertical shear force may be approximately as follows:
bb
V jv = V jh .
hc
5.10.6.9
where
bb = depth of beam
hc = width of column
86
(d) When two non co‐planar frames have common joints, verification of these joints
may be considered in each direction separately.
(4) Structural Walls
(a) The design actions shall be those obtained from a linear analysis of the building
modified as appropriate in accordance with clause 5.10.6.4(b) ‐ (f)
(b) Redistribution
(i) The distribution of the total force to the various walls, as obtained from the
elastic analysis, may be subsequently modified, provided the global equilibrium is
maintained and the maximum value of the action in any wall is not reduced by
more than 30%
(ii) In a coupled wall, the elastic shear forces in the coupling beams can also
be modified with a maximum reduction of 20% provided corresponding
increases in the shear capacities of beams at other floors are made
(c) Bending Moment Design Envelope
The design moments along the height of the wall shall be those given by a linear
envelope of the calculated moment diagram, vertically displaced by a distance equal
to the horizontal length of the wall. (Fig5.10.6.7)
87
Fig5.10.6.7 BENDING MOMENT DESIGN ENVELOPE
(d) Earthquake induced Axial Load in Coupled Walls
The design axial load in the walls due to the lateral action shall be computed using
the shear strengths of the coupling beams above the section considered which
should be calculated from the characteristic values of concrete and steel strength.
The shear strength of the beams thus calculated shall be further amplified by a
factor of 1.25
(e) Dynamic Magnification Factor
Where the equivalent static analysis has been adopted, the shear forces in the walls
shall be increased by the dynamic amplification factors w as given by the expression
below, for buildings up to 5 storeys high:
w = 0.1 N + 0.9 5.10.6.10
where N is the number of storeys.
88
For walls taller than 5 storeys w shall be linearly increased up to the value of
w = 1.8 for N = 15
(f) Shear Forces
(i) The design shear forces in walls shall be compatible with the actual flexural strength
that can possibly be developed at the base of the walls
(ii) The design shear forces shall be obtained by multiplying the shear forces due to the
Code loading by the following γ n factor,
+
γ n = M
u, d
5.10.6.11
M d
where
Md is the design moment obtained from the analysis, and
M+u,d is the flexural strength of the section on the basis of actual
reinforcement provided calculated by using the characteristic values of
concrete and steel strengths.
In evaluating the flexural strength of the base section the appropriate axial load shall
also be considered.
89
5.10.7 DIMENSIONING AND VERIFICATION
5.10.7.1 Linear Elements (General)
(1) Design Strengths
The design strengths of the structural elements in bending, bending with axial force,
shear and torsion shall be evaluated in accordance with BS 8110 except as modified
by this Section 5.10.7
(2) Limiting Axial Load
The design axial compression load under the most severe load combination
including seismic action shall not exceed the following limit
0.5 A g . f
ck
(3) Beam ‐ Column Strength Ratio
(a)Except for cases where hinge formation in column is permitted (see 5.10.7.1 (3)
(b) (iii) at any beam ‐ column joint the sum of the absolute values of the design
ultimate moments of the columns (under the most unfavourable value of the axial
force) shall not be less than the sum of the absolute values of the design ultimate
moments of the beams framing into the joint (Fig.5.10.7.1)
Fig.5.10.7.1 ‐ Beam – Column Strength Ratio
90
(b) DL III Structure
(i) For columns of DL III Structures, the design bending moments shall account for
possible increase in strength of the beams framing into the joint.
(ii) Unless otherwise justified, the global strength increase can be assumed as:
γn = 1.15 5.10.7.1
and is applicable to all storeys, including column bases in the first storey.
(iii) Development of plastic hinges in columns and of columns hinge mechanism
(i.e. exemption from the prescription on beam – column ratio) is permitted
in the following cases:‐
‐ for frames having four or more columns, hinging is permitted to
occur in one column for every three others remaining elastic.
(4) Resistance to Shear
(a) Contribution of Concrete
The magnitude of the term Vcd, expressing design resistance contributed
by concrete shall be taken as follows:
(i) When Nd ≤ 0.1 Ag fcd , Vcd shall be assumed to be zero in all regions
where stirrup‐ties are required in accordance with Clause 5.10.8.2.3
(with the exception of Case (c))
(ii) When Nd > 0.1 Ag fcd , Vcd shall be computed by the expression
Vcd = 2τRd bw d β1 5.10.7.2
where the values of τRd are given in Table 1.6.1 as functions of
concrete grades and β 1 is given by 5.10.7.4
91
M
β 1 = 1+ o ≤ 2
Md 5.10.7.3
where Mo and Md are decompression moment and design moment
respectively. Mo shall be computed by the expression
Mo = Nd h/2 5.10.7.4
Concrete grade
(b) Transverse Reinforcement
(I) Nd ≤ 0.1 Ag fcd
(i). ζ > 0.
The resistance to shear provided by the reinforcement: Vwd shall be given by
Vwd = 0.87 h Asw . fyk 5.10.7.5
s . γs
where,
h is the effective depth,
92
s the spacing of the mats of transverse reinforcement measured
parallel to the axis of the beam.
(ii) ζ< 0. For Vsd not exceeding the limit value, VRd1 where
VRd1 = 3( 2 + ζ ) τRd .bw . d 5.10.7.6
same requirement as in( i) above applies.
‐ For Vsd exceeding the limit value VRd2 where
VRd2 = 6( 2 + ζ ) τRd .bw . d 5.10.7.7
the entire shear shall be resisted by diagonal reinforcement across the web,
that is, steel bars inclined in two directions shall equilibrate with their
compression and tension components the shear forces of opposite sign Vsd
and ζ.Vsd occurring at the section.
‐ For VRd1 < Vsd < VRd2
one half of the maximum shear force shall be carried by doubly diagonal
bars, the other half by transverse reinforcement.
(II) Nd > 0.1 Ag fcd
The resistance to shear shall be checked as for Case (I) (i)
5.10.7.2 Beam ‐ Column Joints (DL III only)
(1) Horizontal Joint Shear
(a) Nominal Horizontal Shear Stress
(i) The nominal horizontal shear stress in the joint as given by the following expression
V 5.10.7.8
τ
jh
jh =
b j hc
shall not exceed the value 20 τRd
93
(ii) The effective joint width bj shall be taken as:
‐ when ( bc > bw )
or bj = bw + 0.5hc
whichever is smaller (Fig. 5.10.7.2)
‐ when bc < bw
either bj = bw
whichever is smaller
Fig.5.10.7.2 ‐ Effective Joint Width and Effective Joint Areas
(b) Shear Force carried by Concrete
The value of shear force carried by the concrete strut Vch shall be assumed zero except for
the following:
(i) When minimum average compression stress σ cm on gross concrete area of the
column above the joint including prestress where applicable, exceeds 0.1 fck
94
V ch = (2 τ Rd ( σ cm - 0.1 f ck ) ) b j h c
5.10.7.11
(ii) When beams are prestressed through the joint:
Vch = 0.7 Pcs 5.10.7.12
where Pcs is the permanent force in the prestressing steel that is located within the
central third of the beam depth.
(iii) When the design precludes the formation of any beam plastic hinge at the joint, or
when all beams at the joint are detailed so that the critical section of the plastic
hinge is located at a distance from the column face not less than hb, or for external
joints where flexural steel is anchored outside the column core in a beam stub.
Vch = A’s . Vjh 1 + Nd 5.10.7.13
As 2 0.4Agfck
where the ratio A's/As of the compression to the tension longitudinal beam
reinforcement shall not be taken larger than 1.0. When the axial column load
results in tensile stresses over the gross concrete area exceeding 0.2 f ck the entire
joint shear shall be resisted by reinforcement.
For axial tension smaller than this limit, the value of Vch may be linearly interpolated
between zero and the value given by equation 5.10.7.13 with Nd taken as zero.
(iv) When parts Aa1 and Aa2 of the column tensile reinforcement and As1 and As2 of the
adjacent beams are bent vertically and anchored in the tensile face of the column
f yk
V ch = Aa 5.10.7.14
γs
where Aa is the smaller of Aa1 and Aa2.
95
The values of Vch obtained from equations (5.10.7.11, 5.10.7.12, 5.10.7.14) may be
added where applicable. (See Fig 5.10.7.3)
Fig. 5.10.7.3 ‐Shear Force carried by Concrete
(c) Horizontal Shear Reinforcement
(i) The horizontal shear reinforcement shall be capable of carrying the design joint
shear force:
across a corner‐to‐corner potential failure plane. The effective total area of the
horizontal reinforcement that crosses the critical diagonal plane and is situated
within the effective joint width bj shall not be less than:
V sh
A jh =
yk / γ s
f 5.10.7.16
(ii) Horizontal sets of stirrup ties shall be distributed as uniformly as practicable
between layers of the top and bottom beam reinforcement.
(2) Vertical Joint Shear
(a) The vertical shear reinforcement shall be able to resist a vertical shear force
96
Vsv = Vjv – Vcv 5.10.7.18
where the value Vcv shall be determined from
Vcv = A’sc . Vj 0.6 + Nd 5.10.7.18
Asc Agfck
where A'sc and Asc are the areas of longitudinal compression and tension
reinforcement in columns respectively, with the following exceptions:
(i) Where axial load results in tensile stress over the column section, the value of Vcv
shall be linearly interpolated between the value of Vcv given by equation (5.10.7.18)
with Nd taken as zero when the axial tension over the gross concrete area is 0.2 fck;
(ii) Where plastic hinges are expected to form in the column above or below a joint,
part of the primary seismic energy dissipating mechanism, Vcv shall be assumed to
be zero for any value of the axial load on the column.
(b) The required area of vertical joint shear reinforcement within the effective joint
width bj shall be determined from:
V sv
A jv =
f yk / γ s
5.10.7.19
(c) The vertical joint shear reinforcement shall consist of intermediate column bars
placed in the plane of bending between corner bars, or of vertical stirrup ties or
special vertical bars, placed in the column and adequately anchored to transmit the
required tensile forces within the joint.
(d) The spacing of vertical joint reinforcement in each plane of any beam framing into a
joint shall not exceed 200mm, and in no case, shall there be, less than one
intermediate bar in each side of the column in that plane.
97
(3) Eccentric Beam ‐ Column Joints
All design provisions of this section apply except that in case of an eccentricity of a beam
relative to the column into which it frames, as measured by the distance between the
geometric centre lines of the two members, the effective joint width bj shall not be taken as
larger than:
0.5( bw + bc + 0.5hc) – e 5.10.7.20
5.10.7.3 Structural Walls
(1) General
The design strengths of walls and coupling beams shall be evaluated as for linear elements
(Section 5.10.7.1) except as modified by provisions in section 1.6.3
(2) Resistance to Shear
(a) Maximum Allowable Shear Stress
The maximum nominal design shear stress in a wall section, evaluated by means of the
expression
τd = Vd / Ag 5.10.7.21
where Vd is the design force computed in accordance with Clauses5.10.6.3 (3) or 5.10.6.4 (4)
shall not exceed the following limit
τd ≤ 10τRd 5.10.7.22
(b) Contribution of Concrete to Shear Strength
(i) In the potential plastic zone, as defined in Clause 5.10.8.5.3(2), the contribution of concrete
to shear resistance is assumed to be zero, unless the minimum axial load produces an
average compression stress over the gross concrete area of the wall equal at least to:
0.1 fcd. 5.10.7.23
98
In which case the shear contributed by concrete shall be computed by:
τcd = 2.5 τRd .β1 5.10.7.24
(ii) Outside the potential hinge zone, and when the average compressive stress is less than 0.1
fcd, the shear stress contributed by concrete shall be taken as:
τcd = 2 τRd 5.10.7.25
while in case the average stress is greater than 0.1 fcd the value is taken as:
τcd = 2.5 τRd .β1 5.10.7.26
(c) Web Reinforcement
Horizontal bars fully anchored at the extremities of the wall section, shall be provided in the
amount:
ρv = Ah = τd ‐ τcd 5.10.7.27
b.sv fyd
while the vertical reinforcement ratio shall be:
ρv = Av = τd ‐ τcd ‐ Nd / Ag 5.10.7.28
b.sh fyd
The vertical shear reinforcement can be assumed to fully contribute to the required flexural
strength.
(3) Coupling Beams
(a) Symmetrical flexural reinforcement, (ρ = ρ'), shall be adopted in case of usual arrangement.
(b) Design for flexure and shear shall be carried out as for ordinary beams unless the following
limits are exceeded τd ≥ 6.τRd
ρ = l√ (8fck) / (4.h.fyk), (fck, fyk in Mpa) 5.10.7.289
99
(ρ = longitudinal reinforcement ratio, top or bottom) in which case all flexural and shear
actions shall be resisted by diagonal reinforcement in both directions.
5.10.7.4 Verifications
(1) Collapse Verification
(a) For the purpose of the present code, a structure shall be deemed to satisfy the
safety requirement against collapse if the following conditions are met
(i) the strength and stability verifications are satisfied;
(ii) the elements are dimensioned and detailed in accordance with rules given in
Sections 5.10.7 and 5.10.8 relative to the appropriate structural type and
intended ductility level.
(2) Strength Verification
The following condition must be satisfied for every element:
Sd ≤ Rd 5.10.7.30
where Sd is the design load effect on the element considered, evaluated according
to Section 5.10.6.
Rd is the design strength of the same element, evaluated according to Section 5.10.7
(3) Stability Verification
The stability verification shall be considered satisfied if:
(i) the deformability index Θ formula 5.10.4.2.7 is less than 0.1,
(ii) for 0.1 < Θ < 0.2, the second order effects are calculated and added to the
design forces.
(iii) the stability verification cannot be satisfied if
Θ > 0.20.
100
(4) Serviceability Verification
(a) The elastic drift, Δel resulting from the application of the horizontal forces specified
in 5.10.4.2.4 or from the dynamic procedure in 5.10.4.2.5, shall at any storey satisfy
the condition:
0.010 5.10.7.31
Δ el ≤ .h
K
where h is the clear height of the floor.
(b) For Class II buildings, the indicated limits may be increased by 50% if it can be
demonstrated that the finishes adopted are not brittle ‐ type and can accommodate
without significant damage to those limits.
(c) When the limits in (a) and (b) are exceeded, separation of the non‐structural
elements is required, of an amount adequate for permitting an inter storey drift
equal at least to:
to take place without restraint.
(d) In no case shall inter‐storey drift Δel exceed the limit :
0.025
Δ max = .h
K 5.10.7.33
(5) Maximum Expected Displacements
The maximum expected displacements of the building shall be obtained by
multiplying the displacements produced by the system of horizontal forces specified
in 5.10.4.2.4 or those obtained from dynamic analysis as in 5.10.4.2.5 by the
appropriate values of the behaviour factor K.
101
5.10.8 DETAILING, EXECUTION, USE
5.10.8.1 General
When no explicit distinction is made, the provisions in this section apply to both DL II and DL
III structures. Provisions applicable to DL I structures are always explicitly stated.
5.10.8.2 Elements Subject to Bending ( N d ≤ 0 . 1 . A g . f cd )
5.10.8.2.1 Geometrical Constraints
DL II and DL III Structures
Unless special proofs for exemption are given, the following dimensional limitations shall be
satisfied
(i) The width shall not be less than 200mm or more than the width of the supporting
column, plus lengths, on each side of this member not exceeding one fourth of the
depth of the column cross section.
(ii) The ratio b/h shall not be less than 0.25
(iv) The eccentricity of any beam relative to the columns into which if frames as
measured by the distance between geometrical centre lines of the two members
shall not exceed 1/4 bc (Fig5.10.8.2)
102
Fig. 5.10.8.1
Fig. 5.10.8.2
(a) Maximum eccentricity of beams
103
5.10.8.2.2 Longitudinal Reinforcement
(1) DL II and DL III Structures
(a) At any section of the member the tensile reinforcement ratio for top or the bottom
reinforcement shall not be less than:
1.4
ρ min = ( f yk
i n Mpa )
f yk
5.10.8.1
nor greater than
7
ρ max =
f yk
5.10.8.2
(b) At least two 12mm bars shall be provided both top and bottom throughout the length of the
members.
(c) Within any potential plastic hinge region, the compression reinforcement ratio ρ'
shall not be less than one half of the tension reinforcement ratio at the same section.
(d) At least one quarter of the larger of the top reinforcement required at either end of the
member shall be continued throughout its length.
(e) In T and L beams built integrally with slabs, the effective reinforcement to be considered
near column faces in addition to all longitudinal bars placed within the web width of beam,
shall be as follows:
(i) At interior columns when a transverse beam of similar dimensions frames into the
column, all reinforcement within that part of the slab which extends a distance 4
times the slab thickness from each side of the column. (Fig 5.10.8.3a)
104
(ii) At interior columns where no transverse beam exists all reinforcement within that
part of the slab which extends a distance of 2.5 times the thickness of the slab from
each side of the column. (Fig 5.10.8.3b)
(iii) At exterior columns where a transverse beam of similar dimensions frames into
column and where the beam reinforcement is to be anchored all reinforcement
within that part of the slab which extends a distance of twice the slab thickness from
each side of the column. (Fig5.10.8.3c)
(iv) At exterior columns where no transverse beam exists, all reinforcement within the
width of the column. (Fig.5.10.8.3d)
Fig. 5.10.8.3 ‐ Areas of Effective Reinforcement
(v) In all cases, at least 75% of the reinforcement in each face providing the required
flexural capacity, must pass through or be anchored in the column core.
105
(2) DL I Structures
Clause5.10.8.2.2. (1) (a) only needs to be satisfied.
5.10.8.2.3 Minimum Transverse Reinforcement
(1) Transverse reinforcement as specified in this section shall be provided unless a
larger amount is required to resist shear (section 5.10.7.1.(4) ) . Portions of the beams
to be considered as ‘critical’ regions are:
(a) Twice the member depth, measured from the face of the supporting column,
or beam, towards midspan at both ends of the beam.
(b) Twice the member depth on both sides of a section where yielding may occur.
(c) Wherever compression reinforcement is required.
(2) DL II Structures
In the critical regions as defined in 5.10.8.2.3 (1), stirrup ties of not less than 6mm
diameter shall be provided, with maximum spacings not exceeding the smaller of:
(a) h/4
(b) eight times the minimum diameter of the longitudinal bars
(c) 24 times the diameter of the hoop bars
(d) 200mm
The first hoop shall be located not more distant than 50mm from the face of the
supporting member.
106
(3) DL III Structures
In the critical regions as defined in 5.10.8.2.3 (1) stirrup ties of not less than 6mm
diameter shall be provided, with maximum spacing not exceeding the smaller of:
(a) h/4
(b) six times the diameter of the longitudinal bars
(c) 150 mm
The minimum area of one leg of the transverse reinforcement shall be:
∑ Ab . f yk S
As, min = .
16 f ykt 100 5.10.8.3
ΣAb = Sum of the areas of longitudinal bars at the section considered to be
restrained by the transverse leg
fyk = yield strength of longitudinal bars
fykt = yield strength of stirrups
S = spacing of stirrups in mm
The first hoop shall be located not more than 50mm from the face of the supporting
member. (Fig 5.10.8.4)
Fig. 5.10.8.4 Regions and Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement
107
5.10.8.3 Elements Subject to Bending and Axial Force ( N d > 0 . 1 . A g . f cd )
5.10.8.3.1 General
Corner columns should be detailed according to DL III requirements.
5.10.8.3.2 Geometric Constraints
(1) DL II Structures
(a) The minimum cross ‐ sectional dimension shall not be less than 250mm
(b) The ratio l/b shall not exceed 25
(2) DL III Structures
(a) The minimum cross‐section shall not be less than 300mm
(b) The ratio l/b shall not exceed the value of 16 for columns having moments of
opposite sign at the two extremities; 10 for cantilever columns.
5.10.8.3.3 Longitudinal Reinforcement
(1) General
(a) The reinforcement ratio shall not be less than 0.01 or larger than 0.06 including the
region of lap splices.
(b) For S400 steel, the reinforcement ratio outside the splices shall not be greater
than 0.045.
(c) The bars shall not be spaced further apart between centres than 200mm.
(2) DL I Structures
The provisions in 5.10.8.3.3 (1) apply to DL I Structures.
108
5.10.8.3.4 Transverse Reinforcement
(1) General
(a) A basic amount of reinforcement shall be provided all over the height of the column while
special reinforcement shall be placed in the column critical regions defined in Clause
5.10.8.3.4 (2)
(b) The amount of reinforcement required by 5.10.8.3.4 shall be provided unless a larger
amount is required to resist shear according to Clause 5.10.7.1 (4)
(2) Column Critical Regions
(a) For usual cases, critical regions are considered to be the regions at each end of a column
above and below connections over a length from the faces of the connection of not less than
the larger of:
(i) the longer column cross‐section dimension in the case of a rectangular
cross‐section, or the diameter of the section in case of a circular column.
(ii) one‐sixth of the clear height of the column
(iii) 450mm
(b) When a masonry infill wall is in contact with one or both of the two opposite sides
of the column, over the whole height or part of it, the entire column height shall be
considered as a critical region.(Fig 5.10.8.5a)
109
Fig. 5.10.8.5 ‐ Solutions to be avoided
(c) In case of columns with part of their height restrained due to a connection with a wall the
free part of the column shall be considered as a critical region.
(3) DL II Structures
(A) Critical Regions
(a) Special transverse reinforcement having a minimum diameter of 8mm in the form of
spiral or hoop reinforcement shall be provided.
(b) Cross ties to restrain longitudinal bars not directly held by hoops shall be used in
accordance with BS 8110
(c) The maximum spacing between spirals or hoops shall not exceed the smaller of:
(i) eight times the minimum diameter of the longitudinal bars
(ii) one half the least cross‐sectional dimension of the section
(iii) 200 mm
110
(d) The transverse reinforcement in the amount specified above shall be continued
throughout the length of the beam ‐ column joint.
(B) Non‐critical regions
The minimum transverse reinforcement in non‐critical regions shall be in accordance with
Table 5.10.8.1
Table 5.10.8.1: TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT ‐ DL II
Critical Region lc = max (h, l/6, 450 mm)
Spacing Critical Region Sh = min (8φ L, 1/2b, 200mm)
Elsewhere Sh = mm (12φL, b, 300mm)
(See Fig. 5.10.8.6)
(4) DL III Structures
(A) Definition
(a) The volumetric ratio is the ratio of volume of spiral or hoop reinforcement to total
volume of concrete core ( out ‐to‐out of bars) within the spacing, Sh
(b) The volumetric ratio ρs for rectangular sections is defined as
ρs =Ash / Sh . h’ 5.10.8.4
where Ash is the total area of hoop bars and supplementary cross ties in each of the
principal directions of cross section, Sh is the spacing and h' is the distance between
centres of outer bars.
111
Fig. 5.10.8.6 ‐ Special Transverse Reinforcement. Critical Region and Spacing
(B) Critical Regions
(a) The volumetric ratio of transverse reinforcement (spiral or hoops) shall not be less
than the greater of
f ck
ρ s = λ1 .
f yk
5.10.8.5
112
⎛ Ag ⎞ f
ρ s = λ2 ⎜ - 1⎟ ck
⎝ Ac ⎠ f yk
5.10.8.6
where, Ag = gross sectional area
Ac = confined area of concrete and the values of λ1 and λ2 are given in
Table 5.10.8.2 as functions of the reduced axial force ratio Nd / Ac fck
Table 5.10.8.2: VALUES OF λ1 AND λ2
λ2
0.l8 0.22 0.26 0.30 0.34
(b) The minimum diameter of spiral or hoops shall be 8mm.
(c) The maximum spacing between spirals or hoops shall not exceed the smaller of:
(i) six times the minimum diameter of longitudinal bars;
(ii) one fourth of the smallest lateral dimension of the section
(iii) l50 mm
(d) Each longitudinal reinforcement bar or bundle of bars shall be laterally supported by
the corner of a hoop having an included angle of not more than 135o or by a
supplementary cross tie except that the following bars are exempted from this
requirement:
113
(i) bars or bundles of bars which lie between two bars supported by the same
hoop where the distance between the laterally supported bars or bundles of
bars does not exceed 200mm between centres.
(ii) inner layers of reinforcing bars within the concrete core centred more than
75mm from the inner face of hoops.
(e) The yield force of the hoop bar or supplementary tie shall be at least one‐sixteenth of
the yield force of the bar or bars it is to restrain including the contribution from the bar
or bars exempted under 5.10.8.3.4 (4)(B)(d)(i)
(f) Each end of a supplementary tie shall engage either a longitudinal bar or the
peripheral hoop besides a longitudinal bar with a bent of at least 1350 and an extension
beyond the bent of at least 10 tie bar diameters. Supplementary ties and legs of hoops
shall not be spaced transversely more than either 200mm or one‐quarter of the column
section dimension perpendicular to the direction of the transverse steel. (Fig. 5.10.8.7).
114
hoop
supplementary
cross ties
hoop
(a) Single hoop plus two (b) Single hoop plus two
supplementary crossties bent supplementary cross ties
round longitudinal bars bent round hoop
Fig. 5.10.8.7 ‐ Typical details using overlapping hoops
115
(C) Non‐critical regions
The requirements relative to the critical regions of DL II columns apply (see Table 1.7.3).
Table 5.10.8.3 TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT
DUCTILITY LEVEL III
Critical Region lc = max (h, l/6, 450mm) (Fig. 5.10.8.6)
Spacing Critical Region Sh = min (6φL, 1/4b, 150mm)
Elsewhere Sh = min (8φL, 1/2b , 200 mm)
5.10.8.4 Beam ‐ Column Joints
5.10.8.4.1 Confinement
(1) DL I and DL II Structures
The horizontal transverse confinement reinforcement in beam ‐ column joints shall not
be less than that required for the columns.
(2) DL III Structures
(a) The horizontal transverse confinement reinforcement in beam ‐ column joints shall
not be less than that required for the columns with the exception of joints
connecting beams at all four column faces that are designed according to Clause
5.10.7.2(1)(b)(ii) or (iii) in which case the transverse joint reinforcement may be
reduced to one half of that required for the columns, but in no case shall the stirrup
tie spacing in the joint core exceed ten times the diameter of the column bar, or
200 mm, whichever is less.
(b) When the width of the column is larger than the effective joint width specified in in
Clause 5.10.7.2(1)(a), all flexural reinforcement in the column that is required to
interact with the narrow beam shall be placed within the effective joint area, bj.hc.
116
Additional longitudinal column reinforcement shall be placed outside this effective
area.
5.10.8.5 Structural Walls
5.10.8.5.1 Geometrical Constraints
(1) General
(i) Wall thickness shall not be less than 150 mm.
(ii) Openings in the walls not regularly arranged to form coupled walls shall be
preferably avoided, unless their influence on the behaviour, of the wall under
seismic action is either insignificant or accounted for by rational analysis
(2) DL III Structures
In addition to the requirements in 5.10.8.5.1 (1) ‐ DL III structures shall also satisfy the
following.
(a) the height (hw) to width (lw ) ratio shall not be less than 2;
(b) the local thickness of a wall shall not be less than hn/10 (hn is storey height)
wherever the maximum compressive strain exceeds the value εcu /3, unless
(i) the distance of the critical fibre (ie where εcu = εcu /3 ) from the wall edge is
smaller than 2b or 0.2 lw,
(ii) the distance of the critical fibre from a transverse wall, or from a flange the
width of which is at least hn/5 is smaller than 3b (see Figs. 5.10.8.8 –
5.10.8.9)
117
Fig. 5.10.8.8 ‐ Minimum Width Requirements
Fig. 5.10.8.9 ‐ Exemptions from Clause 1.7.5.1 on Minimum Wall Width
Fig. 5.10.8.10 ‐ Definition of Vertical Reinforcement Ratio
118
5.10.8.5.2 Longitudinal Reinforcement
(a) The vertical reinforcement ratio in any part of the section shall not be less than 0.25% or
greater than 4% (see Fig. 5.10.8.10).
(b) At least two orthogonal grids of reinforcement shall be used one near each side of the wall
(c) The diameter of the bars used in any part of a wall shall not exceed b/10
(d) The maximum spacing between bars shall be 300mm except where the section is required to
be confined, in which case the spacing shall not exceed 200 mm.
(e) Curtailing: Vertical flexural reinforcement shall be curtailed in accordance with the bending
moment envelope, allowing for the development lengths of the curtailed bars.
(f) Splicing: Splicing of the vertical reinforcement in potential areas of yielding
(See 5.10.8.5.3(1)) shall be avoided whenever possible. In no case shall more than one third
of such reinforcement be spliced in those areas. Special care shall be taken for splicing of the
main (flexural) vertical bars. The splices should be staggered in the longitudinal direction at
least twice the spliced length.
(g) Construction joints: The ratio of vertical reinforcement crossing a construction joint shall be
such as to provide for the transfer of the entire shear capacity of concrete and is given by
the expression:
ρv = (1.3 fctm – 0.7 Nd/Ag) / fyk > 0.0025 5.10.8.7
where:
ρv = Ast / b . lw
with Ast = total vertical wall reinforcement, including that in boundary elements provided
to resist flexure.
Ag is the gross area of the effective wall section including boundary elements.
Nd is the minimum compression force in the wall. Tension shall be taken as
negative.
119
5.10.8.5.3 Transverse Reinforcement
(1) General
The requirement for minimum reinforcement ratio, maximum diameter and maximum
spacing, shall be as for longitudinal reinforcement (Clause 5.10.8.5.2)
(2) Zones with special transverse reinforcement
(i) in the vertical direction, they shall extend from the base over the probable
plastic hinge length, which for the purpose is assumed to be the greater of; the
length ( lw) or 1/6 of the height (hw) of the wall.
(ii) in the plan section whenever the computed concrete strain exceeds the value:
εcu/3. The strain profile over the section shall correspond to development of its
flexural strength, under the maximum design axial compression force occurring for a
load combination including the seismic action (Fig. 5.10.8.11)
E
Fig. 5.10.8.11
120
(b) The amount of special transverse reinforcement to be provided is a function of the
computed depth of the neutral axis: x in the base section of the wall, and of the selected
ductility level as follows:
(i) DL II Structures
The critical neutral axis depth, computed for the most adverse, design bending
moment, d, is given by:
( M +u ,d )
χ = 0.2 . lw
M d 5.10.8.8
χ > χ ‐ Transverse reinforcement shall satisfy the requirements of
(ii) DL III Structures
The critical neutral axis depth, computed for the most adverse bending moment Md,
is given by:
( M +u ,d )
χ = 0.1 . lw
Md
5.10.8.9
when:
χ > χ ‐ Transverse reinforcement volumetric ratio shall not be less
than the greater of:
121
f
ρ s = λ1 . ck
f yk
5.10.8.10
or
⎛ A ⎞ f
ρ λ ⎜⎜ - 1 ⎟⎟
g ck
s
= 2
⎝ A c
⎠ f yk 5.10.8.11
where the values of λ1 and λ2 are given in the following Table 5.10.8.4 as functions
of neutral axis depth ratio.
TABLE 5.10.8.4 VALUES OF λ1 AND λ2 IN EQUATIONS 5.10.8.10 AND 5.10.8.11
The volumetric ratio is defined as
ρ = A’sh 5.10.8.12
Sh h1
where h1 = dimension of wall concrete core measured perpendicular to the direction
of hoop bars to outside of peripheral hoops
A’sh = total steel area of hoop bars and supplementary cross ties in direction under
consideration, with spacing Sh
5.10.8.5.4 Coupling Beams
(a) The diagonal reinforcement in each direction shall be enclosed by rectangular stirrups,
hoops or spirals in accordance with Clause 5.10.8.3.4(4), however their spacing or pitch shall
not exceed l00mm.
122
(b) Minimum thickness for diagonally reinforced beams shall be 200 mm. The anchorage length
of diagonal reinforcement in the adjacent wall be increased by 50% of the lengths prescribed
in BS 8110 (1985) (Fig. 5.10.8.12).
Fig. 5.10.8.12
5.10.8.6 Anchorage and Splicing of Reinforcement
5.10.8.6.1 General
In addition to the rules of BS 8110 the following requirements shall be satisfied in order to
ensure reliable behaviour during cyclic loading reversals caused by seismic action:
(a) All reinforcement bars should be considered to be in insufficient bond conditions except
when anchorage is made in regions confined by means of special transverse reinforcement
where good bond condition can be assumed.
(b) All bars should be able to develop their maximum strength (γn) fyk when a plastic hinge is
formed.
5.10.8.6.2 Flexural Members: Anchorage of Longitudinal Reinforcement
(a) Flexural members framing into opposite sides of a column shall have top and bottom
reinforcement provided at ends of members continuous through the column where possible.
(b) When top or bottom reinforcement cannot be continuous through the column due to the
variations in flexural members cross section, and in exterior columns, the reinforcement
shall be anchored within the beam column connection in accordance with the following:
(i) Reinforcement shall be extended to the far face of the confined region and
anchored to develop its yield strength.
123
(ii) Every bar shall terminate with a standard 90‐degree hook or equivalent anchorage
device, as near as practicably possible to the far face of the column core. Top bars
should be bent down and bottom bars bent up.
(c) For DL III Structures when beams frame into opposite sides of a column, the maximum
diameter of the longitudinal beam bars which are continuous through the column should not
exceed the following fractions of the column depth (parallel to the bar) in Table 5.10.8.5
Table 5.10.8.5
Steel grade Fraction of hc
S220 smooth 1/35
S220 deformed 1/20
S400 deformed 1/30
5.10.8.6.3 Columns: Anchorage of Longitudinal Reinforcement
(a) The maximum diameter of longitudinal column bars which are continuous through a joint
shall not exceed the following fractions of maximum depth of the beams framing into the
column.(Table 5.10.8.6)
Table 5.10.8.6
Steel Grade Fraction of hb
S220 smooth 1/25
S220 deformed 1/15
S220 deformed 1/25
124
When hinges are permitted to form in columns the values indicated in Clause 5.10.8.6.2 shall
be applied.
(b) The anchorage of a column bar into an inter‐section beam shall be made by a horizontal 90‐
degree standard hook or equivalent device, as near the far face of the beam as practically
possible. The direction of the horizontal leg of the standard hook must always be towards
the core of the joint.
(c) When columns terminate at joints at the top of frames or at joints between columns and
foundation members, the anchorage of the longitudinal column bars into the joint region
shall be assumed to begin at a distance equal to one half of the depth of the beam, or 10φ,
whichever is less from the face at which the column bar enters the beam. (Fig 5.10.8.13)
Fig 5.10.8.13
5.10.8.6.4 Splices of Longitudinal Reinforcement
(a) Splices are not permitted within beam‐column joints or within potential plastic hinge
regions.
(b) If it can be shown that plastic hinge cannot develop, splices are permitted in the end
sections of columns, provided that transverse reinforcement spaced vertically no further
than 6 bar diameters, is present.
125
(c) Stirrup‐ties shall be provided over the length of all lap splices of reinforcement in beams and
columns. The maximum spacing of the stirrup‐ties shall not exceed 10 times the diameter of
the bar being spliced.
For DL III structures the maximum spacing shall also not exceed 150 mm.
(d) Welded splices or approved mechanical connections conforming with BS 8110 (1985) may
be used, provided that not more than alternate bars in each layer of longitudinal
reinforcement are spliced at a section, and the distance between splices of adjacent bars is
600 mm or more measured along the longitudinal axis of the frame component.
5.10.8.6.5 Anchorage and Splicing of Transverse Reinforcement
(a) Transverse hoop reinforcement shall be anchored by at least a 135o bent around a
longitudinal bar with a minimum extension at the face end of 10 bar diameters.
Alternatively, the ends of the hoops can be spliced by welds capable of developing the full
strength of the bar.
(b) Transverse reinforcement shall not be lap‐spliced in cover concrete with beam –column
joints or within potential plastic hinge regions. Deformed bars shall be used for lap splices.
(c) When the anchorage for a spiral terminates with a 135o bend around a longitudinal bar, the
extension beyond the bend shall be at least 10 spiral bar diameters.
126
APPENDIX A
SCHEDULE OF UNIT WEIGHT OF BUILDING MATERIALS
Weights of concrete Table 1A
Non‐reinforced plain or mass concrete Normal weight Aggregate: kN/m3
limestone 22.6
gravel 21.2 to 23.6
broken brick 22.0 to 23.6
other crushed 19.6(av)
L i g h t w e ig h ts c o n c r e t e
stone 22.8 to 24.4
Nominal weight 23.6
Reinforced concrete Reinforcement: 1% 22.6 to 24.2
2% 23.1 to 24.7
4% 24.0 to 25.6
KN/m2
Solid slabs – Thickness (floors, 1.80
walls, 75mm etc.) 2.40
100mm 3.60
150mm 6.00
250mm 7.20
300mm 2.00
Ribbed slabs 125mm 2.15
150mm 2.75
225mm 3.35
300mm
Aggregate or type Compressive strength N/mm2 kN/ m3
Lightweights concrete
Expanded clay or shale 5.6 to 8.4 9.4 to 11.8
‐ditto ‐ structural 13.8 to 34.5 13.4 to 18.1
Vermiculite (expanded mica) 0.5 to 3.5 3.9 to 11.0
No‐fines (gravel) ‐ 15.7 to 18.9
Cellular (aerated or gas concrete) 1.4
Cellular structural 10.3 to 15.5 3.9 (min.)
14.1 to 15.7
Concrete block and brick walls kN/ m3
con struction with concrete products
Sandcrete block: solid 17.3
Lightweight aggregates: solid 13.2
Brickwork (nominal) 21.7
kN/m2
Other products Paving slabs (flags)
50mm thick 1.15
Roofing tiles: plain 0.6 to 0.9
inter‐locking 0.6
To convert values in kN to values in kg. multiply by 102
127
Weights of constructional materials Table 2A
Damp‐proof course 48
Tarmacadam 22.6 N/m2 mm per
Macadam (waterbound) 25.1 thickness
Vermiculite3 (aggregate) 0.8 Felt (insulating) 1.9
Terracotta 20.8 Paving slabs. (stone) 26.4
Glass 26.7 Granite sets 28.3
Cork: granular 1.2 Asphalt 22.6
:compressed 3.8 Rubber paving 15.1
Polyvinylchloride 19(av)
Glass‐fibre (forms) 1.9
density at N/m2 per mm
12% moisture Chipboard 7.5
content Plywood 6.1
Abura 4.7 to 6.1 Fibreboard 2.8
Afara or limba 4.7 to 6.1 Wood‐wool 5.7
African walnut 4.7 to 6.1 Plasterboard 9.4
Afromosia 6.3 to 7.7 Water boarding 3.8
Afzelia 7.9 to 10.2
Density at 12%
Timber
Agba 4.7 to 6.1
Albizzia (A.ferruginea) 6.3 to 7.7 moisture constant
KN/m
3
Alstonia 3.1
Antiaris 3.1 Gedu nohor 4.7 to 6.1
Avodire 4.7 to 6.1 Guarea (cedrata) 4.7 to 6.1
Ayan 6.3 to 7.7 Guarea (thomsonii) 4.7 to 6.1
Canarium, African 3.1 Idigbo 4.7 to 6.1
Celtis 3.1 Ilomba 4.7 to 6.1
Dahoma 4.7 to 6.1 Iroko 6.3 to 7.7
Danta 6.3 to 7.7 Mahogany, African 4.7 to 6.1
Ekki 4.7 to 6.1 Makore 4.7 to 6.1
Esia 6.3 to 7.7 Okwen 4.7 to 6.1
Mansonia 6.3 to 7.7 Opepe 6.3 to 7.7
Mubura 6.3 to 7.7 Ptergygota 6.3 to 7.7
Miangori 10.2 Sapele 4.7 to 6.1
Obeche 7.9 to 10.2 Stervulia, Brown 6.3 to 7.7
Odoko 4.7 to 6.1 Sterculia, yellow 6.3 to 7.7
Ogea 6.3 to 7.7 Utile 6.3 to 7.7
Okan 4.7 to 6.1
3.1 to 4.6
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
7.9 to 10.2
128
Natural stone (solid)
Granite 25.1 to 28.7 Stone rubble (packed) 22.0
Sandstone 22.0 to 23.6 Quarry waste 14.1
slate 28.3 Hardcore (consolidated) 18.9
All‐in aggregate 19.6
129
Weight of roofs Table 3A
Weight per m2 of slope of roof
Material (N/m2)
Net including normal laps and fastenings
Aluminum sheet, flat 20 S.W.G 24.9
Aluminum sheet, flat 22 S.W.G 19.6
Aluminum sheet, flat 24 S.W.G 15.3
Asbestos cement sheets, corrugated 6mm thick 135 160
Asbestos cement sheets, flat 5mm thick 80
Asbestos cement sheets, flat 6mm thick 110
Asbestos cement sheets, flat 10mm thick 170
Asbestos cement sheets, flat 12mm thick 220
Copper sheeting 16 S.W.G 145
Copper sheeting 18 S.W.G 110
Copper sheeting 20 S.W.G 80
Copper sheeting 22 S.W.G 65
Copper sheeting 24 S.W.G 50
Roofing felt, 3‐ply 25
Roofing felt, 2‐ply 20
Roofing felt, 1.ply 15
Shingles (excluding battens) 120
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 18GB 110 135
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 20GB 90
105
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 22GB 70
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 24GB 55 90
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 26GB 45 70
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 28GB 35
55
Steel sheet, galvanized, flat 18GB 100
Steel sheet, galvanized, flat 20GB 80 45
Steel sheet, galvanized, flat 22GB 60
Steel sheet, galvanized, flat 24GB 50
Steel sheet, galvanized, flat 26GB 40
130
Table 3A (cont’d)
Steel sheet, galvanized, flat 28BG
Thatching, 300mm nominal thickness :dry 30
:wet 410
Cladding
Roofing, burnt clay Marseilles type 530
(excluding battens)
Tiles, roofing, burnt clay Etruscna type 430
(excluding battens)
Tiles, roofing, burnt clay, Broseley type 570
(excluding battens)
Tiles, roofing, burnt clay, Italian type 670
(excluding battens)
Reinforced concrete slabs, concrete tiles 720
etc. See Table 1A
Spacing of trusses 3.0m 4.5m
2
Approximate weights of steel roof trusses in N/m of Span of trusses 7.5m 95 72
plan area of roof 9m 120 72
Roof trusses
131
Weights of stored materials Tables 4A
132