Journal of Cultural Heritage 28 (2017) 9–15

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Original article

Non-invasive analytical technique to address water uptake on stone

surfaces: The implemented Contact Sponge Method (i-CSM)
Simona Scrivano ∗ , Laura Gaggero
Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences, University of Genoa, C.so Europa 26, 16132 Genoa, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The assessment of capillary rise rate is a recommended test in Cultural Heritage diagnostics to evalu-
Received 13 December 2016 ate the evolution of stone textural properties and decay, and performances of conservation treatments.
Accepted 30 May 2017 Beside laboratory tests, diverse non-invasive and non-destructive, in-situ methods were developed in
Available online 20 June 2017
order to establish the monitoring for monumental structures and decorative apparatus: Karsten tube,
Mirowsky pipe and contact sponge methods (CSM). The comparison between the diverse techniques
Keywords: demonstrated high comparability between the datasets obtained with the CSM (UNI 11432:2011) and
Implemented Contact Sponge Method
those recast with capillary absorption. However, the dataset collected with the conventional method is
(i-CSM)
In-situ diagnostics
affected by high standard deviation due to several variables, mainly operator-dependent. The adoption
Water absorption of a pocket penetrometer, coupled with the use of a thicker sponge, aimed at parameterizing the load
Surface water uptake upon the surface. The implementations allowed a higher reproducibility of the measures, as well as the
possibility of applying increasing pressures. In this study the i(mplemented)-CSM was adopted to test the
adsorption behaviour of a set of ornamental stones (Macigno Sandstone, Breccia Aurora, Rosso Verona
and Vicenza Stone) both un-weathered and weathered by freeze-thaw ageing and salt weathering. A
correlation between the maximum open pore radius and an increase in water absorbance at higher loads
was established. The preliminary promising results wait to be further validated on larger datasets.
© 2017 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction measuring the properties most strictly connected to open porosity,

The selection of analytical methods for the conservation of
dimension or carved stones in Cultural Heritage has multidimen-
sional aspects, mainly related with the need of non-invasive, in-situ
techniques preserving the integrity of monuments [1,2]. Several
authors approached this topic developing methodologies to inves-
tigate two of the most significant parameters linked to weathering
processes: water circulation and surface hardness [3–5]. Under-
standing water circulation and the role of related parameters is
of critical importance, as water is the primary decay agent for
its mechanical and chemical action and for its action as solute
carrier (e.g., salts, acids, pollutants, etc.). Therefore weathering pro-
cesses resulting in rock deterioration are mostly connected with
the permeability of the material to fluids (mostly water), and to the
properties related with of the rock structure, i.e. porosity. The fabric
of each lithotype corresponds to a specific porous system, and each
stone has a characteristic behaviour when it interacts with water.
The international normative deserved specific testing protocols for
e.g., water absorption, permeametry to water vapour, capillary rise
rate [6–8]. The assessment of capillary rise rate is a suggested test
in heritage diagnostics to evaluate the evolution of porosity and
decay (e.g., cracks and decohesion; [4,9–11]), but it needs at least
three cubic specimens 3 × 3 × 3 cm, which is an enormous amount
of material in the perspective of conservation.
To avoid sampling, different techniques were developed:
Mirowsky Pipe (MP), Karsten Tube (KT) and Contact Sponge Method
(CSM). Several authors [12,13] pointed out that between these
three different non-invasive testing methods the most similar to
the first steps of the capillary adsorption test is the contact sponge
method. This test gives information about the behaviour of the sur-
face and immediate subsurface layer of the analysed material and
therefore is suitable to reconstruct the capillary absorption coeffi-
cient. The test is widespread and well described in literature, and
proved also to be useful in the analysis of weathering rates, protec-
tive efficacy and monitoring over time of the ageing processes of
conservation treatments [12,14–17].

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: simona.scrivano@edu.unige.it (S. Scrivano).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2017.05.013
1296-2074/© 2017 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
10 S. Scrivano, L. Gaggero / Journal of Cultural Heritage 28 (2017) 9–15

2. Research aims

The aim of this study was to evaluate the operator dependency

of CSM as described in UNI 11432:2011 [6], and develop techni-
cal improvement. The parameterisation of the applied pressure
was undertaken, along with a selection of the sponge types. This
preliminary study aimed at the customisation of the method and
at the trial of a refined analytical protocol. This pilot testing was
performed on five different lithotypes, both un-weathered and arti-
ficially weathered, to evaluate the precision of the implemented
technique, and its sensibility to weathering processes.

3. Experimentals

3.1. The contact sponge method and its implementation

The procedure described by the Italian normative [6] requires a

sponge with known density, soaked with a given amount of water,
to be placed for an established amount of time (i.e., a time span
between 30 seconds and 3 minutes) in contact with the surface of
the material under analysis. The test sheet reports both the weight
of the sponge (including its holder) before (mi ) and after (mf ) the
contact, to measure the amount of water adsorbed (Wa) by the
sample (on the contact area, A) during a given amount of time (t)
with the function:
  (m −m )
Wa g/m2 s = m A·t
= iA·t f
Several authors pointed out the high sensitivity of the test
to various environmental parameters (e.g., RH, T) [18], trying to
develop protocols to mitigate their influence. Pardini and Tiano [14]
suggested pressure parameterisation through the use of a dynamo-
metric spring in order to have more reliable datasets, whereas
Vandervoorde et al. [12] stated that for low porous materials this
implementation is not necessary. Laboratory testing showed also
the importance of skilled operators to yield reliable and repro-
ducible data.
With this premises, in order to reduce the standard deviation, we
addressed the applied pressure by employing a pocket penetrome-
ter. The wider pressure scale and the versatility of this device have
led to select it instead of the dynamometric spring. The pocket
penetrometer is a lightweight instrument for field use and check
of the visual classification of soils. It gives data about consistency,
shear strength, and approximate unconfined shear strength. Direct-
reading scale, in our case in Kgf/cm2 , corresponds to equivalent
unconfined compressive strength. In the general use, the meas-
ures obtained by the penetrometer do not replace laboratory test
results as it provides point data. For our purpose, a metal piece
with the diameter of the sponge plate was designed and crafted, to
be screwed at the tip of a pocket penetrometer. The metal holder
was shaped to retain exactly the base of a 3 cm-diameter Petri dish
containing the sponge (Fig. 1). The graduated scale of the instru-
ment allowed imparting a constant pressure to the holder and to
the sponge, while the whole instrumental geometry permits press-
ing the load perpendicularly upon the surface. Such configuration
allows avoiding misplacing and calibrating the loads (Fig. 2).
In order to be able to perform measurements with different
loads without touching the surface with the sponge holder, it
was decided to verify the possibility of using a sponge different
®
from the one described in literature references (Calypso natural
cellulosic sponge by Spontex) [12–18] mainly by means of thick-
ness. For this purpose, a bath sponge of cellulosic material (AQUA
®
massage cellulosic bath sponge by Arix S.p.A.), with a thickness of
2.8 cm, was cut to fit inside the adopted 3 cm-diameter Petri dishes.
In order to assess if the sponge thickness can modify the mea-
surement mechanics, and, therefore, alter the acquired datasets,
®
both the Calypso and the bath sponge were characterized with
Fig. 1. Implemented Contact Sponge Method. Scheme of the custom designed tip
for the ST 308 Penetrometer.
pycnometry to evaluate their characteristics (Table 1) and then
used for the testing.
The customized device allowed carrying out a preliminary
study on five different sedimentary ornamental stones both un-
weathered and weathered. In order to obtain reliable data a
protocol was drafted: the test was carried out putting in contact
for 1 minute the sponge, soaked with a defined amount of distilled
®
water (i.e., 2 mL for the Calipso sponge, and 3 mL for the bath
sponge), with the surface of the sample oriented at 45◦ . At first the
two different sponges were used free hand on the un-weathered
samples surfaces, to verify the high error depending on the operator
and on the mechanics of the measurement. A second test encom-
passed the application of a defined minimum load (i.e., 0.3 Kgf/cm2 )
for both the sponge types on the un-weathered samples. Then, a fur-
ther test applying a higher load to the thicker sponge was carried
out: for the un-weathered samples, two different measurement
set were undertaken, with two different loads, 0.3 Kgf/cm2 , and
1.1 Kgf/cm2 . The loads were selected randomly on the scale of the
penetrometric device with the caution, for the maximum load, to
avoid the sponge-plate edges to get in touch with the surface, oth-
erwise deviating the pressure from the sponge. The analysis of the
results obtained for the un-weathered samples allowed deciding
to select the load to be adopted, joined with the use of the thicker
sponge, on the surfaces of the weathered one (i.e. 0.3 Kgf/cm2 ).
All the steps of the implementation to the CSM were tested on
five different sedimentary lithotypes. The sample set is composed of
6 un-weathered parallelepiped samples 5 × 5 × 1 cm for each rock,
and 6 cubic specimens 5 × 5 × 5 cm for each rock and per each artifi-
cial ageing (see section 3.3). The results were correlated with those
obtained by the capillary absorption method [8] and with the petro-
physical parameters connected to pores. The capillary absorption
data presented were acquired on cubic specimens 3 × 3 × 3 cm with
an automatized procedure at the University of Zaragoza.
 S. Scrivano, L. Gaggero / Journal of Cultural Heritage 28 (2017) 9–15 11

Fig. 2. Flowchart summarizing the i-CSM procedure.

Table 1
Sponges. Summary of the main characteristics of the sponges adopted for the tests.

Thickness [cm] Medium density [g/cm3 ]UNI 1160:2003 Open porosity [volume %]UNI 13755:2008
®
Calypso by Spontex 0.85 0.33 ± 0.01 80 ± 3
Bath sponge 2.8 0.27 ± 0.01 79 ± 2

3.2. Materials illite and montmorillonite-chlorite. The brecciated texture presents

The sample set is made of sedimentary lithotypes, mainly
carbonates with different porosity values and textures, largely
employed as ornamental or dimension stones. The study was
addressed to Macigno Sandstone (MS), Breccia Aurora (BA), Rosso
Verona (RV) and Vicenza Stone (VS) (Table 2).
The MS is a turbiditic sandstone, mainly composed by quartz,
albite and orthoclase, secondary calcite and phyllosilicates of the
montmorillonite-chlorite series [19]. The texture evidences a clast-
supported sediment with very fine to medium-sized sandy clasts.
This lithotype presents an open porosity corresponding to 1.91% in
volume.
The BA is a polygenic breccia consisting mostly of carbonatic
variegated fragments, cemented by calcite, with minor quartz,
angular intra-clasts, so the rock results an intra-sparite. The rock is
compact (i.e., open porosity = 0.32% in volume) but exhibits high
variability due to its brecciated structure.
The RV is a nodular limestone with marly matrix (made of illite,
micrite, Fe-oxides and quartz), classified as biomicrite. The compact
micritic nodules are characterized by the presence of molluscan
shell casts and ammonites, replaced by sparry calcite, dispersed in
the matrix. The open porosity value is 0.57% in volume.
The VS is a bioclastic limestone, often recrystallized and
cemented by micrite matrix. The texture is heterogeneous, with
variable grain size from coarse to fine (even in the same quarry
front) and high porosity. Fossils (mainly nummulites, sponges,
red algae, bryozoans, corals, foraminifera) are mainly replaced by
sparry calcite, cemented by abundant micrite matrix. The fine- and
12 S. Scrivano, L. Gaggero / Journal of Cultural Heritage 28 (2017) 9–15

Table 2
Analysed materials. Summary of the main petrologic and petrophysical (i.e., density and open porosity values) features of the lithotypes addressed both un-weathered and
weathered.

MOLP Un-weathered Freeze-thaw Salt

UNI 1160:2003 UNI Image analysis, UNI UNI

Density ␳ 13755:2008 XRCT, MIP 13755:2008 13755:2008
[g/cm3 ] Open porosity Max pore Open porosity Open porosity
[volume %] radius range [volume %] [volume %]
[␮m]

MS Greywacke 2.71 1.88 0.1–1 – 6.21

Clasts of quartz (55%), plagioclase
(5%), K-feldspar (5%) and lithoclasts
(20%); interstitial cement of calcite
(5%) and phyllosilicates (10%) [19]

BA Calcareous breccia with clastic 2.69 0.32 1–5 0.37 0.41

texture
Nodules of compact limestone (like
Botticino marble) and massive
micrite + oolite limestone;
cemented by sparite veins

RV Biointramicrite 2.68 0.57 10–50 0.89 2.51

massive micrite matrix with
micro- and macro-fossils (mainly
ammonites); with micrite + clay
minerals veins

FGV Organogenic limestone 2.43 22.8 200–400 28.74 31.5

Micro- and macro-foraminifera,
algae, bryozoans and remains of
echinoderms; high content of
calcium carbonate (90–95%), trace
oxides

CGV 2.46 21.84 2000–3000 34.89 35.09

MS: Macigno Sandstone; BA: Breccia Aurora; RV: Rosso Verona; FGV: fine grained Vicenza Stone; CGV: coarse grained Vicenza Stone. Macro-photograph: scale bar 2 cm.
MOLP photograph: scale bar 1 mm.

coarse-grained varieties (respectively named hereafter FGV and
CGV) show different open porosity values, namely of 22.8% and
21.8% respectively.
3.3. Artificial ageing
Altered samples were produced from the same lithotypes by
ageing with freeze-thaw tests and saline solution immersion. The
freeze-thaw ageing test, described by the European International
Committee with the UNI 11186:2008 [20] protocol, encompasses
32 cycles made up of six hours at −20 ◦ C, followed by six hours
at 20 ◦ C with samples dipped in water. Saline decay was simulated
following the partial immersion procedure described by Benavente
et al. [21]: it tends to mimic the natural capillary uptake as driv-
ing force for the saturated Na2 SO4 saline solution. This test method
encompasses 15 cycles of temperature and relative humidity (i.e.
12 hours at 40 ◦ C with an RH of the 80% and 12 hours at 30 ◦ C with
the 60% of RH) in a climatic chamber inducing processes of precip-
itation and dissolution from the saline solution inside the porous
network.
4. Results and discussions
Hereafter, for each lithotype and test, only the average values
and their relative standard deviation will be discussed. The manual
testing (for both the sponge typologies) confirmed the high values
of standard deviation (Table 3, Fig. 3). The high variability affects
in particular the datasets from lithotypes characterized by a high
open pore volume; in fact FGV and CGV showed standard deviation
values ranging from 38% up to 72% of the measured values.
The data acquired with the improved methodology with a load
of 0.3 Kgf/cm2 (for both the sponge typologies) proved consistent
with those obtained with the conventional free hand testing taking
into account the error bars. The major discrepancies between man-
ual and improved testing are significant for rocks with high open
porosity values, and negligible for open porosities values lower
than 2% in volume. The application of loads proved to be effect-
ing in increasing reproducibility, with a decrease of the standard
deviation values (Table 3, Fig. 3). With the i-CSM procedure, in FGV
and CGV the proportion between the standard deviation values and
the measures decreases between 15 and 20%, with the application
of loads.
The application of higher loads (i.e., 1.1 Kgf/cm2 ) evidenced a
closer relationship between the open pore radius and the suction
force of the capillary pores. Here, CGV shows an increment in water
absorption at increasing applied force. Considering the maximum
diameter of the pore openings (i.e., 4–6 mm, see Table 2), the Wash-
burn’s equation (i.e., Pc = (2y/r) cos; where y is the surface tension
of water, r is the radius of the capillaries, and  is the contact angle
between water and the rock) demonstrated that, in the wider pores,
 S. Scrivano, L. Gaggero / Journal of Cultural Heritage 28 (2017) 9–15 13

Table 3
Experimental dataset. Un-weathered samples. Summary of the average values and the associated standard deviation for the various testing.

WA [g/cm2 s]
®
Calypso by Spontex Bath sponge
2
Manual 0.3 Kgf/cm Manual 0.3 Kgf/cm2 1.1 Kgf/cm2

Average St. dev. Average St. dev. Average St. dev. Average St. dev. Average St. dev.

MS 0.0001 ± 0.0001 0.0001 ± 0.00002 0.0005 ± 0.0004 0.0001 ± 0.00002 0.0001 ± 0.00001
BA 0.0001 ± 0 0.0001 ± 0.0001 0.0007 ± 0.0004 0.0001 ± 0.00002 0.0001 ± 0.00004
RV 0.0002 ± 0.0001 0.0002 ± 0.0002 0.0011 ± 0.0002 0.0001 ± 0.00005 0.0001 ± 0.00000
FGV 0.0053 ± 0.0025 0.003 ± 0.0005 0.0069 ± 0.005 0.0034 ± 0.0005 0.0035 ± 0.0006
CGV 0.0032 ± 0.0017 0.0019 ± 0.0003 0.0053 ± 0.002 0.003 ± 0.0005 0.0037 ± 0.0007

MS: Macigno Sandstone; BA: Breccia Aurora; RV: Rosso Verona; FGV: fine grained Vicenza Stone; CGV: coarse grained Vicenza Stone.

Fig. 3. I-CSM, compared with the conventional method. The results obtained on
® aged (grey circle) and salt weathering (grey triangle) are compared. MS: Macigno
un-weathered samples with both Calypso sponge and bath sponge with the con-
ventional free hand method (red), are compared with the implemented method
under different loads (light blue: 0.3 Kgf/cm2 ; dark blue: 1.1 Kgf/cm2 ). MS: Macigno
Sandstone; BA: Breccia Aurora; RV: Rosso Verona; FGV: fine grained Vicenza Stone;
CGV: coarse grained Vicenza Stone. The conventional method shows high standard
deviation, mostly for porous rocks. The increment of applied pressure influences the
values in rocks with coarser open pore radius (e.g. CGV) associated with water flux,
rather than capillary suction.
the applied load of 1.1 Kgf/cm2 exceeded the pressure of capillary
forces, so that the sponge transferred more water to the specimen.
The comparison of the datasets obtained for un-weathered and
aged samples (Table 4, Fig. 4) allows detecting an increment in
water absorption with weathering, especially for FGV and CGV.
The water absorption values collected with the i-CSM method-
ology concur with the increases registered in the open porosity
Fig. 4. I-CSM. Un-weathered and weathered samples. The results obtained with the
bath sponge and a load of 0.3 Kgf/cm2 for un-weathered (blue square), freeze-thaw
Sandstone; BA: Breccia Aurora; RV: Rosso Verona; FGV: fine grained Vicenza Stone;
CGV: coarse grained Vicenza Stone. The weathering processes influences the amount
of water absorption mainly for MS, RV, FGV and CGV.
values (Table 2). The results suggest a higher susceptibility to salt
weathering for quite all the lithotypes, with an increase in water
absorption.
The i-CSM datasets obtained from un-weathered and weathered
samples with a 0.3 Kgf/cm2 load and the thicker sponge show a good
correlation with capillary uptake measurements (Fig. 5). FGV and
CGV, even with slightly different values, show constant moderate
variations between unaltered and altered samples. An analogous
correspondence in the results was attained for MS, the other litho-
type with a homogeneous structure. BA has the most spread results
that can be referred to the high natural textural and compositional

Table 4
Experimental dataset. Artificially aged samples. Summary of the average values and the associated standard deviation for freeze-thaw aged and salt weathered samples.

WA [g/cm2 s]

Un-weathered Freeze thaw Salt weathering

Average St. dev. Average St. dev. Average St. dev.

MS 0.0001 ± 0.00002 – – 0.0004 ± 0.0001

BA 0.0001 ± 0.00002 0.0001 ± 0.00002 0.0001 ± 0.00002
RV 0.0001 ± 0.00005 0.0001 ± 0.00002 0.0012 ± 0.0023
FGV 0.0034 ± 0.0005 0.0055 ± 0.001 0.0071 ± 0.0013
CGV 0.003 ± 0.0005 0.0065 ± 0.0008 0.0069 ± 0.0015

MS: Macigno Sandstone; BA: Breccia Aurora; RV: Rosso Verona; FGV: fine grained Vicenza Stone; CGV: coarse grained Vicenza Stone.
14 S. Scrivano, L. Gaggero / Journal of Cultural Heritage 28 (2017) 9–15
Fig. 5. I-CSM results compared with capillary rise method. Un-weathered (solid line
and square) and weathered rocks (freeze-thaw: dash-dot line and circle; salt altered:
dash line and triangle) obtained by the automatized capillary absorption technique
and the i-CSM. MS: Macigno Sandstone; BA: Breccia Aurora; RV: Rosso Verona; FGV:
fine grained Vicenza Stone; CGV: coarse grained Vicenza Stone. The homogeneous
lithotypes (MS, FGV, CGV) present comparable datasets; RV and BA, with increased
textural variability, show differences, with constant water absorption patterns.
variability of the test samples. Also RV shows variations between
the two testing methods due to the textural difference (i.e., finer or
coarser micrite + phyllosilicate veins) between the test samples.
5. Concluding remarks
The laboratory testing pointed out that the conventional CSM
methodology needs skilled operators to produce a coherent dataset,
particularly in case of high percentages of open porosity. The adop-
tion of the pocket penetrometer to control the applied pressure
allowed reproducible measurements; in addition, the use of a
thicker sponge enabled to apply the method also on rough sur-
faces, as the device holding the sponge avoids the contact with the
tested object. In general, the applied pressure does not influence
the measurements, as reported in literature [12]. Nevertheless, an
increased water absorbance coefficient is obtained when a higher
load is impressed, at coarser pore radius. This is due to the water
surface tension and the capillary rise pressure, linked with water
adsorption without applying pressure in a determined range of pore
diameters. For coarser porosity classes the suction pressure is lower
than that exerted by putting the sponge in contact with the sur-
face, thus implying the interdependence between the load and the
capability of coarser pores to adsorb water. Therefore, in choosing
the applied load for i-CSM the maximum open pore radius has to
be considered. The CSM, frequently used to assess water absorp-
tion behaviour of stone surfaces and conservation treatments on
site, positively correlates with capillary uptake for unaltered and
altered specimens, and proved useful in assessing the decay on
monumental structures in Cultural Heritage.
The presented data provide preliminary promising results to be
further validated on wider datasets. The transformation of a pocket
penetrometer, a device for measuring resistance in soil mechanics,
with an apposite tip, associated with the use of a sponge thicker
than the holder edge, allowed reducing the operator-dependent
uncertainties in the water absorption test, due to a more suit-
able mechanics. However, the maximum load selected without
allowing the sponge-plate edges to get in touch with the surface,
is dependent on the investigated rock type for the interdepen-
dency between applied load and main open pore radius. The
implementation allowed a higher reproducibility of the dataset if
compared to the currently adopted method [6].
The comparison between i-CSM method and capillary adsorp-
tion evidenced matching values and high comparability both for the
dataset on unaltered and on altered samples. Therefore, this in-situ
methodology could help performing reliable diagnostics directly
on monuments, having proved a sufficient sensitivity to moderate
differences in weathering rate, and highlighting the increased text-
ural impact of salt crystallization compared with that generated by
freeze-thaw ageing.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge the revisions of the two anonymous referees,
who helped us improving the manuscript. This work was car-
ried out with the financial support of the “Analisi delle proprietà
microstrutturali, chimico-fisiche di materiali inorganici; determi-
nazioni quantitative della composizione mineralogica di materiali
naturali e delle proprietà tecniche dei materiali litici” Laboratory
funds, DISTAV, University of Genoa. The authors acknowledge Clau-
dio Belfortini for crafting the tip, Prof. Maurizio Ferretti for access
to the facilities at DCCI, Prof. Josep Gisbert Aguilar of the University
of Zaragoza for the support in the capillary uptake measurements,
and Frosini Pietre s.r.l., Breccia Aurora s.r.l, Fasani Celeste s.r.l., and
Nichele Fratelli s.r.l. for providing the samples.
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