LEARNER’S MODULE:

Mathematics in the Modern World

Chapter 3: Problem Solving and Reasoning

I. Objectives

At the end of this Chapter, the student must be able to:

a. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments
made about mathematics and mathematical concepts;
b. Write clear and logical proof;
c. Solve problem solving involving patterns and recreational problems
following the Polya’s Four Steps; and
d. Organize one’s method and approaches for proving and solving
problems.

II. OVERVIEW

Mathematics is not just about numbers; much of it is problem solving and

reasoning. Problem solving and reasoning are basically inseparable. The art of
reasoning is very important in mathematics. This is the skill needed in exemplifying
the critical thinking and problem solving ability. Logic and reasoning are very
useful tools in decision making. People also do deductive reasoning extensively
to show that certain conjectures are true as these follow the rules of logic. A
conjecture is a conclusion made from observing data.

III. DISCUSSION

Reasoning is the practice of stating ideas clearly and precisely to

arrive at a conclusion. In our life, we often make judgement and
conclusion based on facts and observations. These are not always true.
Thus, we have to know the different ways of arriving at accurate
conclusions.

A. Kinds of Reasoning (Zuela, et. al, 2009)

1. INTUITION – it is similar to guessing. It is also called reasoning by guessing or

reasoning by common sense. It requires mental activity.
Example: After the first meeting in her Statistics class, Mariah says, “I
think I will like Statistics.”
2. ANALOGY – it is a form of reasoning in which in other similarities are inferred
from a particular similarity between two or things. It is reasoning by
comparison.
Example: 1. Tree is to leaf as flower is to petal.
2. hammer : nail :: comb : hair
3. INDUCTIVE REASONING – it is a process of gathering specific information,
usually through observation and measurement and then making a conjecture
based on the gathered information.
Example: Find the sum
1 =1
1 + 3 =4
1+3+5=9
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = ___
1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2n -1) = ___ n numbers

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4. DEDUCTIVE REASONING – it is the process of showing that certain
statements follow logically from agreed upon assumptions and proven facts.
Example: Given: 4(3x – 8) + 5 = x – 5.
Solve the equation for x. Give the reason for step in the process.

Solution: 4(3x – 8) + 5 = x – 5.
12x – 32 + 5 = x -5 Apply distributive property
12x – 27 = x – 5 Combine similar terms
11x – 27 = -5 Apply subtraction property of equality
11x = 22 Apply addition property of equality
X=2 Use division property of equality

Deductive reasoning is used in formal geometric proofs and often resorted to in

providing theorems and corollaries in Geometry.

EUCLID (325 BCE – 265 BCE), the father of Geometry and the first Egyptian
Mathematician who initiated a new way of thinking the study of geometry
and introduced method of proving a geometrical result by deductive
reasoning based upon previously proved result and some self-evident
specified assumption called axioms.

B. Mathematical Proofs
A proof is a sequence of true facts (statements) placed in a logical order.
In providing, the following may be used as reasons:
 The given information (the hypothesis)
 Definition and undefined terms
 Algebraic properties
 Postulates of geometry
 Previously proven geometric conjectures (theorems)

C. Algebraic and Geometric Proofs

In order for us to prove properly and correctly, it is wise to remember and
understand the necessary property to be used in writing formal proofs:
Important Properties of Algebra
For real numbers w, x, y, and z
Reflexive x=x
Symmetric If x =y, then y = x
Transitive If x = y and y = z, then x = z
Substitution If x + y = z and x = 3, then 3 + y =z
Distributive x(y + z) = xy + yz

Commutative Properties:
Addition x+y=y+z
Multiplication yz = zy

Associative Properties:
Addition x +(y+z) = (x+y) + z
Multiplication x(yz) = (xy)z

Addition Properties of Equality (APE)

a. If x =z, then x ± y =z ± y
b. If w = x and y =z, then w + y = x +
Multiplication Properties of Equality (MPE)

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a. If x =z, then xy = yz or x/y = y/z
b. If w = x and y = z, then wy = xz or w/y = x/z

Example:
Find the value of x in 2(x + 1) = 6x + 4.
Proof:
Statements Reasons
2(x + 1) = 6x + 4 Given
2x + 2 = 6x + 4 Distributive Property
2x + 2 – 6x – 2 = 6x + 4 -6x -2 APE
-4x (-1/4) = 2 (-1/4) MPE
x = 1/2 Simplification

D. Geometric Properties
The following properties may be used to justify proof of some mathematical
statements.
PROPERTIES GIVEN STATEMENT
Reflexive (REF) AB ≅ CD
Symmetric (SYM) AB ≅ CD CD ≅ AB
(1). (1).
Addition Property of AB ≅ CD AB ± EF = CD ± EF
Equality (APE) (2). (2).
AB = CD, EF = GH AB ± EF = CD ± GH
(1). (1).
Definition of Congruent AB ≅ CD AB = CD
Segments (DOCS) (2). (2).
AB = CD AB ≅ CD
Definition of
Betweenness (DOB) A B C AB + BC = AC

Definition of Midpoint
(DOM) A M B
AM ≅ MB
M is the midpoint of AB

How to write proof?

There are many ways in how to write proofs. We can have top-down or
deductive reasoning or bottom-up or inductive reasoning. It can be formal
or informal procedure.

Example: Prove the following using formal proof.

Given: Y is the midpoint of XZ. A
XY ≅ AB

X Y Z

Prove: XY ≅ AB

Proof:
Statements Reasons
1. Y is the midpoint of XZ Given
2. XY ≅ YZ Definition of Midpoint (DOM)
3. XY ≅ AB Given
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4. YZ ≅ AB Transitive

E. Polya’s 4 – Steps in Problem Solving

Geoorge Polya has had an important influence on problem solving in

mathematics education. He stated that good problem solvers tend to
forget the details and tend to focus on the structure of the problem, while
poor problem solvers focus on the opposite. He designed the following:

4-Step Process:
1. Understand the problem. (See)
Read and understand the problem. Identify what is the given information,
known data or values and what is the unknown and to be solved as
required by the problem.
Consider the following questions:
a. Can you restate the problem in your own words?
b. Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
c. Is there missing information that if known would allow you to solve the
problem?
d. Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
e. What is the goal?

2. Devise a plan. (Plan)

Think of a way to solve the problem by setting up an equation, drawing a
diagram, and making a chart that will help you find the unknown and the
solution. To start devising a plan, try doing the following:
a. Make a list of the known information.
b. Make a list of information that is needed.
c. Draw a diagram.
d. Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
e. Make a table or chart.
f. Work backwards.
g. Try to solve similar but simpler problem.
h. Write an equation, as possible define what each variable represents.
i. Perform an experiment.
j. Guess at a solution and then check the result.

3. Carry out plan. (Do)

Solve the equation you have set up and observe analytical rules and
procedures until you arrive at the answer.
a. Work carefully.
b. Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
c. Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you will have
to devise another plan and modify your existing plan.

4. Look back. (Check)

In order to validate the obtained value, you need to verify and check if the
answer makes sense or correct based on the situation posed in the
problem. Label your final correct answer.
a. Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
b. Interpret the solution within the context of the problem.

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 LEARNER’S MODULE:
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c. Ask yourself whether there are generalizations o the solution that could
apply to similar problems.

Example: A police station has 25 vehicles of motorcycles and cars. The total
number of wheels is 70. Find the number of motorcycles and cars the station
has.

Solution:
Step 1. Understand the problem.
Given: 25 vehicles
70 wheels
Required: The number of cars and the number of motorcycles.
Step 2. Devise a plan.
Let x = the number of cars
y = the number of motorcycles
and x + y = 25 vehicles
4 wheels (x=cars) + 2 wheels (y=motorcycles) = 70 wheels
So, x + y = 25 vehicles and 4x + 2y = 70 wheels are two equations formed
based on the problem.
Step 3. Carry out plan.
(1) x + y = 25
(2) 4x + 2y = 70, solving two equations with two unknown using process of
elimination:
(1) -2(x + y= 25) -> -2x – 2y = -50
(2) 4x + 2y = 70 -> 4x + 2y = 70
2x + 0 = 20
2x = 20
2 2
x = 10
since x denotes the number of cars is as follows:
since x + y = 25, then 10 + y = 25, y = 25 – 10, finally y = 15, so there
are 15 vehicles in the police station.
Step 4. Look back.
Therefore, there are 10 cars with 4 wheels and 15 motorcycles with 2 wheels.
The total number of wheels is 70 wheels.

In this example, the use of Polya’s 4-Step Strategy is very helpful in solving
problem because one must read and understand properly the problem. Specify
the given information and values and what to solve. Always think of drawing a
pattern, setting up the table, working backward, or making lists and tables and
design right away the needed equation and use other techniques in order to
arrive at realistic and correct answer. Though, logical shortcuts can be employed
in nay problem.

F. Problem Solving Strategies

1. Searching Patterns
The ability to recognize patterns is one important problem solving skill. It
enables a person to see order of regularity in what it takes place in our
surroundings and so be able to make sense of what is going on.

Example: 1. Find the next number in the sequence.

a. 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, …

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b. 2, 6, 18, 54, 162, 486, …

Solution (a):
1. Understand the problem
Given: 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, …
Required: The next number in the sequence.
2. Devise a plan.
1st term => 5 4th term => 17 = 13 + 4
2nd term => 9 = 5 + 4 5th term => 21 = 17 + 4
3rd term => 13 = 9 +4 6th term => 25 = 21 + 4
3. Carry out plan
Sequence: 5 9 13 17 21 25

4 4 4 4 4
There is a common difference of 4.
Therefore, the next number in the sequence is 29.
4. Look back.
Answer: 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, 29

2. Working Backward
A strategy that starts at the end of the problem and works backward.

Example:
Anne has a certain amount of money in her bank account on Friday
morning. During the day she wrote a check for Php 24.50, made an ATM
withdrawal of Php80 and deposited a check for Php 235. At the end of
the day, she saw what her balance was Php 451.25. How much money
did she have in her bank at the beginning of the day?

Solution:
1. Understand the problem.
Given: Php 24.50 check, ATM withdrawal Php80, check
deposit Php 235
Required: Money she had in the bank at the beginning of the
day.
2. Devise a plan
Start with 451.25. Subtract 235, add 80, and then add 24.50.
3. Carry out plan
so, 451.25 – 235 + 80 + 24.50 = Php 320.75
4. Look back
Php 320.75 she had in the bank at the beginning of the day.

3. Drawing Pictures and Diagrams.

A problem can be solved by means of a figure, a diagram, or a graph.
It helps you visualize a problem, makes it easier for you to determine the
relevant data and observe important connections and relationships.

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 LEARNER’S MODULE:
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Example: Two cars left, at 8:00 AM, from the same point, one traveling
east at 50mph and the other traveling south at 60mph. At what time will
they be 300 miles apart? x
East

y D

Solution: South
1. Understand the problem.
Given: 8:00 AM, Car 1 with 50mph east, Car 2 with 60mph south,
300 miles apart
Required: The time when they will be 300 miles apart.
2. Devise a plan
x = 50t and y = 60t
Since the two directions are at right angle. Pythagorean theorem
can be used to find distance D between the two cars as follows:
𝐷 = √(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
3. Carry out plan
We now find the time at which D = 300 miles by solving

√(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) = 300
Square both sides and substitute x and y by 50t and 60t
respectively to obtain the equation
Solve the equation to obtain
(50𝑡)2 + (60𝑡)2 = 3002
2500𝑡 2 + 3600𝑡 2 = 90000
6100𝑡 2 90000
=
6100 6100
𝑡 2 = 14.75
√𝑡 2 = √14.75 t = 3.84 (round to two decimal places) or 3
hours and 51 minutes (to the nearest minute)
4. Look back
The two cars will be 300 miles apart at 8:00 AM + 3h 51’ = 11:51 AM

4. Making Lists and Tables

The method “Make a Table” is helpful when solving problems
involving numerical relationships. When data is organized in a table,
it is easier to recognize patterns and relationships between numbers

Example: An Algebra test consists of ten multiple choice questions. Ten points are
given for each correct answer and three points are deducted for each incorrect
answer. If Joshua did all questions and scored 48, how many incorrect answers
did he have?
Solution:
1. Given: 10 questions answered, score = 48, 10 points for each correct
answer, 3 points deducted for each incorrect answer.
Required: the number of correct answers
2. Devise a plan
The number of correct answer (x) + number of incorrect answers (y) = 10
Score = 10(x) – 3(y)
3. Carry out plan

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 LEARNER’S MODULE:
Mathematics in the Modern World
Number of correct (x) Number of incorrect (y) Score = 10x -3y
10 0 100
9 1 87
8 2 74
7 3 61
6 4 48
5 5 35
4 6 22
3 7 9
From the table you can see that Joshua, who scored 48, must have had 6
correct answer and 4 incorrect ones. So, Joshua had 4 incorrect answers.
4. Look back
For Joshua, x = 6 and y = 4, so 6 + 4 = 10 items.
Therefore 10 x 6 – (3 x 4) = 60 – 12 = 40

5. Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns

The Looking for a Pattern strategy can be used to solve many math
problems and can be used in combination with many other strategies, including
make a table, make a list, or simply the problem.

Example: Find the next three terms in the given sequences:

a. 2, 5, 8, 11, ___, ___, ____
b. 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, ___, ___, ___
Solution: (a)
1. Understand the problem
In the given sequence, we need to find a pattern based on the
given terms and then we will use it to find the next three terms.
2. Devise a plan
The strategy that is appropriate for the problem is Looking for a
Pattern Strategy. What will we do here is to see whether the terms
are increasing or decreasing and how many units.
3. Carry out plan
If we are to examine the terms in the given sequence, we’ll notice
that each term increases by 3. So if this pattern continues, the next
three terms in the sequence would be 14, 17, and 20.
4. To check if our answers are reasonably correct, then we
determine the difference between each of the given terms then
we add this difference to the last given term until we produce next
three terms. So we have:
2 5 8 11 14 17 20

-3 -3 -3 +3 +3 +3

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