UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the study of matter—what it consists of, what its properties are, and how it
changes. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space—that is, anything that is
physically real. Some things are easily identified as matter—the screen on which you are
reading this book, for example. Others are not so obvious. Because we move so easily through
air, we sometimes forget that it, too, is matter. Because of this, chemistry is a science that has
its fingers in just about everything. Being able to describe the ingredients in a cake and how
they change when the cake is baked, for example, is again, chemistry.

Chemistry is one branch of science. Science is the process by which we learn about the natural
universe by observing, testing, and then generating models that explain our observations.
Because the physical universe is so vast, there are many different branches of science. Thus,
chemistry is for the study of matter together with Physics with the inclusion of energy and
forces, biology is the study of living things, and geology is the study of rocks and the earth.
Mathematics on the other hand is the language of science, and it is being used to communicate
some of the ideas of chemistry.
Although we divide science into different fields, there is much overlap among them. For
example, some biologists and chemists work in both fields so much that their work is called
biochemistry. Similarly, geology and chemistry overlap in the field called geochemistry. At some
level, all of these fields depend on matter because they all involve "things"; because of this,
chemistry has been called the "central science", linking them all together.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: After successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Define chemistry and cite its application and thus importance in daily lives.
2. Identify the branches of chemistry and cite examples of each.
3. Trace the history of chemistry, enumerate the people behind and be inspired by their
scientific efforts.

COURSE MATERIALS:

LESSON 1: BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the branch of science dealing with the structure, composition, properties, and the
reactive characteristics of matter. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Thus,
chemistry is the study of literally everything around us – the liquids that we drink, the gasses we
breathe, the composition of everything from the plastic case on your phone to the earth beneath
your feet. Moreover, chemistry is the study of the transformation of matter. Crude oil is
transformed into more useful petroleum products such as gasoline and kerosene by the process
of refining. Some of these products are further transformed into plastics. Crude metal ores are
transformed into metals,that can then be fashioned into everything from foil to automobiles.
Potential drugs are identified from natural sources, isolated and then prepared in the laboratory.
Their structures are systematically modified to produce the pharmaceuticals that have led to
vast advances in modern medicine. Chemistry is at the center of all of these processes and
chemists are the people that study the nature of matter and learn to design, predict and control
these chemical transformations. 

Branches of Chemistry

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The study of modern chemistry has many branches, but can generally be broken down into five
main disciplines, or areas of study:

 Physical chemistry: Physical chemistry is the study of macroscopic properties, atomic

properties, and phenomena in chemical systems. A physical chemist may study such
things as the rates of chemical reactions, the energy transfers that occur in reactions, or
the physical structure of materials at the molecular level.
 Organic chemistry: Organic chemistry is the study of chemicals containing carbon.
Carbon is one of the most abundant elements on Earth and is capable of forming a
tremendously vast number of chemicals (over twenty million so far). Most of the
chemicals found in all living organisms are based on carbon.
 Inorganic chemistry: Inorganic chemistry is the study of chemicals that, in general, are
not primarily based on carbon. Inorganic chemicals are commonly found in rocks and
minerals. One current important area of inorganic chemistry deals with the design and
properties of materials involved in energy and information technology.
 Analytical chemistry: Analytical chemistry is the study of the composition of matter. It
focuses on separating, identifying, and quantifying chemicals in samples of matter. An
analytical chemist may use complex instruments to analyze an unknown material in
order to determine its various components.
 Biochemistry: Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes that occur in living
things. Research may cover anything from basic cellular processes up to understanding
disease states so better treatments can be developed.

In practice, chemical research is often not limited to just one of the five major disciplines. A
particular chemist may use biochemistry to isolate a particular chemical found in the human
body such as hemoglobin, the oxygen carrying component of red blood cells. He or she may
then proceed to analyze the hemoglobin using methods that would pertain to the areas of
physical or analytical chemistry. Many chemists specialize in areas that are combinations of
the main disciplines, such as bioinorganic chemistry or physical organic chemistry.

One important characteristic of chemistry as well as other sciences is that they follow a set
of methods which are based on facts and gathered evidences to acquire scientific
understandings. We call this scientific method. The steps of which are given as:

The Scientific Method:

1. Identify the problem

2. Gather data
Law – a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relationship between
phenomena that are always the same under the same conditions.
3. Formulate hypothesis
Hypothesis – a tentative explanation for a set of observations
4. Device an experiment to test the hypothesis
5. Interpret experimental data
6. Make generalizations, conclusions
Theories – extensively tested hypothesis and able to describe a model. It is a unifying
principle that explains the body of facts.
7. Test the validity of the generalization

2
Exercises:
1. List the branches of chemistry and cite at least two applications of each.
2. In what ways can studying chemistry help you in this time of pandemic?
3. Think of a problem you normally encounter at home, in the streets or even in school. Solve
the problem by applying the scientific method.

LESSON 2: History of Chemistry

It was not until the era of the ancient Greeks that we have any record of how people tried to
explain the chemical changes they observed and used. At that time, natural objects were
thought to consist of only four basic elements: earth, air, fire, and water. Then, in the fourth
century BC, two Greek philosophers, Democritus and Leucippus, suggested that matter was not
infinitely divisible into smaller particles but instead consisted of fundamental, indivisible particles
called atoms. Unfortunately, these early philosophers did not have the technology to test their
hypothesis. They would have been unlikely to do so in any case because the ancient Greeks did
not conduct experiments or use the scientific method. They believed that the nature of the
universe could be discovered by rational thought alone.

Over the next two millennia, alchemists, who engaged in a form of chemistry and speculative
philosophy during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, achieved many advances in chemistry.
Their major goal was to convert certain elements into others by a process they called
transmutation. In particular, alchemists wanted to find a way to transform cheaper metals into
gold. Although most alchemists did not approach chemistry systematically and many appear to
have been outright frauds, alchemists in China, the Arab kingdoms, and medieval Europe made
major contributions, including the discovery of elements such as quicksilver (mercury) and the
preparation of several strong acids.

An Alchemist at
Work

3
 Alchemy was a form of chemistry that flourished during the Middle Ages and
Renaissance. Although some alchemists were frauds, others made major contributions,
including the discovery of several elements and the preparation of strong acids.

Major progress was made in putting chemistry on a solid foundation when Robert Boyle (1637 -
1691) began his research in chemistry Figure 1.1.31.1.3. He developed the basic ideas about
the behavior of gases. He could then describe gases mathematically. Boyle also helped form
the idea that small particles could combine to form molecules. Many years later, John Dalton
used these ideas to develop the atomic theory.

The field of chemistry began to develop rapidly in the 1700's. Joseph Priestley (1733 - 1804)
isolated and characterized several gases: oxygen, carbon monoxide, and nitrous oxide. It was
later discovered that nitrous oxide ("laughing gas") worked as an anesthetic. This gas was used
for that purpose for the first time in 1844 during a tooth extraction. Other gases discovered
during that time were chlorine, by C.W. Scheele (1742 - 1786) and nitrogen, by Antoine
Lavoisier (1743 - 1794). Lavoisier has been considered by many scholars to be the "father of
chemistry". Among other accomplishments, he discovered the role of oxygen in combustion and
definitively formulated the law of conservation of matter.

Chemists continued to discover new compounds in the 1800's. The science also began to
develop a more theoretical foundation. John Dalton (1766 - 1844) put forth his atomic theory in
1807. This idea allowed scientists to think about chemistry in a much more systematic way.
Amadeo Avogadro (1776 - 1856) laid the groundwork for a more quantitative approach to
chemistry by calculating the number of particles in a given amount of a gas. A lot of effort was
put forth in studying chemical reactions. These efforts led to new materials being produced.
Following the invention of the battery by Alessandro Volta (1745 - 1827), the field of
electrochemistry (both theoretical and applications) developed through major contributions by
Humphry Davy (1778 - 1829) and Michael Faraday (1791 - 1867). Other areas of the discipline
also progressed rapidly.

It would take a large book to cover developments in chemistry during the twentieth century and
up to today. One major area of expansion was in the area of the chemistry of living processes.
Research in photosynthesis in plants, the discovery and characterization of enzymes as
biochemical catalysts, elucidation of the structures of biomolecules such as insulin and DNA -
these efforts gave rise to an explosion of information in the field of biochemistry.

The practical aspects of chemistry were not ignored. The work of Volta, Davy, and Faraday
eventually led to the development of batteries that provided a source of electricity to power a
number of devices.
Charles Goodyear (1800 - 1860) discovered the process of vulcanization, allowing a stable
rubber product to be produced for the tires of all the vehicles we have today. Louis Pasteur
(1822 - 1895) pioneered the use of heat sterilization to eliminate unwanted microorganisms in
wine and milk. Alfred Nobel (1833 - 1896) invented dynamite. After his death, the fortune he
made from this product was used to fund the Nobel Prizes in science and the humanities. J.W.
Hyatt (1837 - 1920) developed the first plastic. Leo Baekeland (1863 - 1944) developed the first
synthetic resin, widely used for inexpensive and sturdy dinnerware.

Today, chemistry continues to be essential to the development of new materials and

technologies, from semiconductors for electronics to powerful new medicines, and beyond.

4
Exercises:
1. What lessons can we learn from scientists that we can apply in real life? Cite at least
two.
2. What do you think is the importance of tracing the history of chemistry?

For history and further application of chemistry, You may also visit:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L2Q2q20KaEk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nXKrmOHU68k
References:
Introduction to Chemistry together with the branches of Chemistry:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Palomar_College/PC%3A_CHEM100_-
_Fundamentals_of_Chemistry/01%3A_The_Chemical_World/1.1%3A_The_Scope_of_C
hemistry

Definition and Importance:

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Palomar_College/PC%3A_CHEM100_-
_Fundamentals_of_Chemistry/01%3A_The_Chemical_World/1.2%3A_Chemicals_Comp
ose_Ordinary_Things

Timeline for the History of chemistry: :

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book
%3A_Chemistry_(Averill_and_Eldredge)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Chemistry/1.4_A_Brief
_History_of_Chemistry

History of chemistry introduction:

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Book
%3A_Chemistry_(Averill_and_Eldredge)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Chemistry/1.4_A_Brief
_History_of_Chemistry

UNIT II. MEASUREMENTS

Scientists do not just stop studying the world by describing it qualitatively. They go a step further
by describing the world through physical quantities that can be expressed as numbers. To
facilitate these descriptions, they make use of standards of measurement. Measurement is a

5
scientific comparison. It is the process of comparing an unknown quantity with a known
standard quantity. This necessitates the existence of a standard system of measurement.

With the existence of two prevailing systems of measurements used to describe quantities, the
English and the Metric systems, it is important to be familiar with them and be able to convert
one to another. In doing so, knowledge of conversion factors, metric prefixes and scientific
notations as well as familiarity of the measuring devices and how to use them are necessary.

LEARNING OUTCOMES: After successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Cite advantage and disadvantage of metric and English units.
2. Convert measurements expressed in Metric to English Units and vice versa.
3. Deal and solve problems involving inconsistent units.
4. Simplify and express very large or very small numbers in metric units or scientific
notations.
5. Solve related quantities useful in the study of chemistry.
6. Enumerate laboratory measuring devices for mass, length, time and volume.
7. Measure accurately dimensions of real objects using the appropriate measuring device.
8. Identify measurement patterns found in nature and everyday living.

COURSE MATERIALS

Lesson 3. The International System of Measurement

The International System of Units or SI (From Système International d’ Unités) is the name
adopted by the Eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures, held in Paris in 1960,
for a universal, unified, self-consistent system of measurement units based on the MKS (meter-
kilogram-second) system. At this conference, standards were defined for six base units; the
seventh base unit (the mole) was added in 1971. The following table lists the seven
fundamental quantities with their corresponding units and symbols.

Table 1 Seven Fundamental SI Quantities and Units

Name of Quantity Name of Base SI Unit Symbol for Unit
Length meter or metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela Cd
Amount of substance mole mol

Following is the definition of the basic units of length, mass and time which are the
quantities you will often meet in mechanics.

Length

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 The meter (or metre) is a measure of length. It is the basic unit of
length in the metric system and in the International System of Units (SI),
used around the world for general and scientific purposes. Historically,
the meter was defined by the French Academy of Sciences as
1/10,000,000 of the length of the imaginary line joining the equator and
the North Pole, passing through Paris. Now, it is defined by the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures as the distance traveled
by light in absolute vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second. This is
approximately the distance from floor to hip bone on the average
barefoot man.

Mass
The kilogram is the SI base unit for mass. It was originally defined as the mass of one
liter of pure water at standard atmospheric pressure and at the temperature of 4C. This
definition was hard to realize accurately, partly because the density of water depends slightly on
pressure. To avoid this problem, the kilogram was redefined as precisely the mass of a
particular standard mass created to approximate the original definition. Since 1889, the SI
system defines the unit to be equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram,
which is made from a cylindrical alloy of platinum and iridium of 39 mm height and diameter and
is kept at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and
Measures), near Paris. Official copies of the prototype kilogram are made available as national
prototypes, which are compared to the Paris prototype ("Le Grand Kilo") roughly every 10 years.
The international prototype kilogram was made in the 1880s.

Time
The second is the SI base unit for time. Originally, the second was known as a "second
minute", meaning the second minute (or small) division of an hour. The first division was known
as a "prime minute" and is equivalent to the minute we know today. In 1956 the second was
defined in terms of the period of revolution of the Earth around the Sun. It was then defined as
the fraction 1/31,556,925.9747 of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours. With the
development of the atomic clock, it was decided to use atomic clocks as the basis of the
definition of the second. In 1967 the Thirteenth General Conference on Weights and Measures
defined the second of atomic time in the International System of Units (SI) as the duration of
9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine
levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.

Amount of substance

The mole is the SI unit quantifying the amount of a substance. This unit was introduced into
chemistry around 1900 by Ostwald, and he originally defined this unit in terms of gram.
According to him, the molecular weight of a substance, expressed in grams, shall henceforth be
called a mole. At present, a mole is the quantity of anything that has the same number of
particles found in 12.000 grams of carbon-12. That number of particles is the Avogadro's
Number, which is roughly 6.02x1023. A mole of carbon atoms has 6.02x1023 carbon atoms. It's a
lot easier to write the word 'mole' than to write '6.02x10 23' anytime you want to refer to a large
number of things. Basically, that's why this particular unit was invented.

Avogadro constant is named after the early nineteenth century Italian scientist Amedeo
Avogadro, who is credited (1811) with being the first to realize that the volume of a gas (strictly,
of an ideal gas) is proportional to the number of atoms or molecules. The French chemist Jean
Baptiste Perrin in 1909 proposed naming the constant in honor of Avogadro. American

7
chemistry textbooks picked it up in the 1930's followed by high school textbooks starting in the
1950s.

When fundamental quantities are combined, what we have are derived quantities. Table 2 lists
common examples of SI derived quantities.

Table 2 Examples of SI Derived Quantities and Units

Name of Derived Quantity Name of Derived SI Unit Symbol for Unit
Area square meter m2
Volume cubic meter m3
Speed, Velocity meter per second m/s
Mass Density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
Current Density ampere per square meter A/m2
Amount of Substance
Mole per cubic meter mol/m3
Concentration
Illuminance candela per square meter cd/m2

Lesson 4: Consistency and Conversion of Units

Algebraic symbols are used to represent physical quantities in equations. These

symbols always denote both a number and a unit. For instance, the physical quantity, distance,
can be represented by the algebraic symbol, d, and 15 m is an example of a measured
distance. Notice that the measurement includes a number (15) and a unit (m).
All equations should have consistent units, that is, it should be dimensionally
consistent. In calculations, units are treated just like algebraic symbols. We cannot add or
subtract directly quantities which have different units such as distance and time. But we can
multiply and divide them. Consider the following examples:

Example: A girl is playing while walking. She walks for a time, stops for a few seconds then
walks again. A keen observer measured the distances that the girl covered as she continuously
does the movement. The distances were as follows: 0.5 km, 3000 cm, and 12 m. What is the
total distance covered by the girl?

Solution: To get the answer, you simply convert the distances into the base unit meter then add
them algebraically.
0.5 km= 500m, 3000 cm = 30 m
dt = 500m + 30 m + 12 m = 542 m
In this example you added measurements of the same quantity with the different units.
Notice that the unit should be the same first before you can actually add them.

Example: The molecular weight of a particular element or compound is expressed in g/mol.

What is the molecular weight of 3 moles of a compound weighing 540g?
Solution: To get the molecular weight, you simply have to divide the mass by the number of
moles as implied by its unit:

8
 540 g
MW =
3 mol=180 g /mol ¿
¿
Notice that the unit of the answer is a combination of two basic units, it is a derived unit.

The simplest way to convert from one unit to another is to carry through the units
themselves in the mathematical operation. To illustrate this process, consider the following
examples.

Example: Convert 4.5g/cm3 to kg/m3.

Solution: To convert this, you will need the following conversion factor: 1000 g = 1 kg and
100cm = 1m. Then multiply the ratio of conversion in such a way that the unwanted unit will be
eliminated making way for the required unit.

g 1 kg 100 cm 100 cm 100 cm

4.5 x x x x =¿4,500 kg/m3
cm 1000 g 1m 1m 1m
3

Notice that we multiplied the given by 100cm three times, eliminating cm 3 and replacing it with
m3.

The following are some useful conversion factor and relationships for your reference.

Common Conversion Factors: 1 ft3 = 7.481 gal

Mass 1 quart = 2 pints
1 kg = 2.2 lb 1 gallon = 4 quart
1 lb = 454 g 1 mL = 1 cm3
1 short ton = 2000 lb
1 long ton = 2240 lb Time
1 metric ton = 1000 kg 1 hr = 60 min
1 hr = 3600 sec
Length
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 ft = 12 in
1 m = 3.28 ft
1 cm = 10 mm
1 mile (mi) = 1.609 km
1 mi = 5280 ft
1 yard (yd) = 3 ft
1 rod = 16.5 ft

Area (sq unit)

1 hectare(ha) = 10000 m2
1 mi2 = 640 acres

Volume (cubic units)

1 gallon (gal) = 3.785 L

9
Exercises:
Convert the following:
1. 0.0342 km/h  ft/s
2. 450 cm3  liters
3. 280 g/ml kg/m3
4. 250 in2  m2
5. Water has a mass of 18 grams in every 1 mole. If 1 mole means 6.02x10 23 atoms, how
many atoms are there in 1 gram?

Lesson 5: Metric Prefixes and Scientific Notation

The physical universe offers quite a wide range of measurements. Take a look at the
following examples:

The earth’s radius measured at the equator is 6,378,137 m

The sun’s diameter is about 109 times the earth’s diameter.
The time of earth’s orbit around the sun is about 30 million seconds.
The diameter of a hydrogen atom is about 1 divided by one billion meters.
The smallest cell, a type of bacterium known as a mycoplasma, measures 0.000 000 1 m.

Now, imagine writing those measurements repeatedly with all the zeroes. Obviously, it
will be time consuming and impractical. It is for this reason that scientists have devised a way of
expressing very large and very small numbers in a convenient and concise way.

Metric Prefixes
A metric prefix (also known as an SI prefix) is a name or associated symbol that
precedes a unit of measure (or its symbol) to form a decimal multiple or submultiples. This
prefixes are used to reduce the quantity of zeroes measurements. For example, one-billionth of
a meter can be written as 0.000 000 001 meter. In symbol form, this can be written as 0.000 000
001 m. Using a metric prefix, this is equivalent to 1 nanometer or 1 nm. The list of twenty metric
prefixes is shown on Table 1.3.

Table 3 Metric/SI Prefixes

Exponentia
Prefix Symbol Numerical
l
yotta Y 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 1024
zetta Z 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 1021
exa E 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 1018
peta P 1,000,000,000,000,000 1015
tera T 1,000,000,000,000 1012
giga G 1,000,000,000 109
mega M 1,000,000 106
kilo k 1,000 103

10
 hecto h 100 102
deca da 10 101
no prefix means: 1 10 0
deci d 0.1 10-1
centi c 0.01 10-2
milli m 0.001 10-3
micro Μ 0.000001 10-6
nano n 0.000000001 10-9
pico p 0.000000000001 10-12
femto f 0.000000000000001 10-15
atto a 0.000000000000000001 10-18
zepto z 0.000000000000000000001 10-21
yocto y 0.000000000000000000000001 10-24

These twenty metric prefixes are used to combine with units of measure. For example,
the prefix name kilo denotes a multiple of one thousand, so 1 kilogram equals 1000 grams, 5
kilometer equals 5000 meters, 30 kiloampere equals 30, 000 amperes, and so on. Each metric
prefix name has an associated symbol which can be used in combination with the symbols for
units of measure. Thus, the “kilo” symbol, k, can be used to produce kg, km, and kA, for
kilogram, kilometer, and kiloampere respectively. SI prefixes are internationally recognized and
may also be used in combination with non-SI units; for example: milligauss (mG) and microinch
(µin).

Scientific Notation
Scientific notation is a notation for writing numbers that is often used by scientists and
mathematicians to write large and small numbers in an easy and concise way. Numbers that are
written in scientific notation has several properties that make them very useful.
In scientific notation, numbers are written using powers of ten in the form A×10 B where B
is an integer exponent and the coefficient A is any real number between one and ten, that is, 1 ≤
A < 10. 10B is sometimes called the power of ten while A is sometimes referred to as the
significand or mantissa. To express a number in scientific notation, the following steps may be
followed:
1. To determine A, move the decimal point until you only have one non-zero digit to
its left.
2. To determine B, count the number of times you have move the decimal point.
Moving the decimal point to the left makes B positive while moving it to the right
makes B negative.

Examples: Express the following decimal numbers in scientific notation.

1. 148 000  this may be written as 1.48 x 105.
2. 0.000 683  this may be written as 6.83 x 10-4.

Take note that we can also find the sign of B from the magnitude of the given number. If
a number is greater 1, when you express it in scientific notation, B is positive and if the number
is less than 1, B is negative.

Unit Conversion involving Prefixes:

Examples

11
1. The distance between 2 atoms in a molecule is 148 pm. What is this distance in meters?
x10x 148 x x10x -12
148 x EXP -12
148 x E -12

Solution:
Note that p which stands for pico corresponds to 1 x 10-12 so:

148 pm x 1 x 10-12 m = 148 x10-12 m or 1.48 x 10-10m

1pm

2. Convert 3.47 x 10-6 g to µg

Solution:
Since µ stands for micro that corresponds to 1 x 10-6 , then:

3.47x 10-6 g x 1 µg = 3.47 µg

1 x 10 -6g

3. The color of light depends on its wavelength. The longest visible rays, at the end of the
visible spectrum are 0.78 µm in length. Express this length in nanometer.
Solution:
Since µ stands for micro that corresponds to 1 x 10 -6 , and n for nano which corresponds to
1 x 10-9 then:

0.78 µm x 1 x 10-6 m = 0.78 x 10-6 m x 1 nm = 780 nm

1 µm 1 x 10-9m

1
0.78 x −3
=0.78 x 103 =780 nm
10

Convert 3160 nm¿ μm

1 x 10−9 m 1 μm −3
3160 nm x x =3160 x 10 μm=3.16 μm
1 nm −6
1 x 10 m
4. The silica gel which is used to protect sealed overseas shipments from moisture seepage
has a surface area of 6.0 x 105 m2 per kilogram. What is this surface area in square feet per
gram?
Solution:
The numerator m2 should be converted to ft2 while the denominator kg to g.

m2 3.281 ft 3.281 ft 1kg ft 2

6.0 x 105 m2 per kilogram¿ 6.0 x 105 x x x =6,458.9766
kg 1m 1m 1000 g g

Exercises:
A. Express the following measurements using the appropriate metric prefix.
1. 10-15 seconds
2. 109 kelvins
3. 10-2 gram
4. 0.000001 amperes
B. Identify what is being asked in the following:
1. How many millimeters are there in a meter?
2. How many microampere are there in a kiloampere? 12
3. How many seconds are there in a nanosecond?
C. Express the following in the correct way of expressing scientific notation.
 Operations with Scientific Notation
To multiply and divide numbers in scientific notation, combine the mantissas and the
power of ten then perform division or multiplication separately. The multiplication and division of
the power of ten are performed using the rules for operation with exponential functions. Study
the following examples.

Examples:
2.34  10 2  1.67x10 5  (2.34  1.67) x (10 2  10 5 )  3.91x10 3
1.

9 .8 x 104 9.8 104

2. =( )( )
2.45 x 10−3 2.45
x
10−3
=4.00 x ( 10 4 ∙ 103 )=4.00 x 107

Addition and subtraction of numbers in scientific notation require the numbers to be

rewritten with the same exponent, in order to simply add (or subtract) the mantissas, so it will
take two steps to perform. First, if needed, rewrite one number to an expression with the same
exponent as the other. This is usually done with the one with the smaller exponent. Second, add
or subtract the mantissas, then copy the power of ten.

Examples:
2.41x10 4  5.69x10 4   2.41  5.69  x10 4  8.10x10 4
1.

5 6
2. 1.23x10  4.13x10 = 0.0000123 +0.00000413= 0.00001643 =1.643 x 10-5
To get the sum, let us rewrite 4.13x10 -6 to 0.413x10-5 so that its exponent will be the
same as that of the other, then we can proceed to addition.
1.23x10 5  0.4135   1.23  0.413  x 10 5  1.643x10 5
4 6
3. 7.85x10  3.45x10
Rewrite 3.45x10-5 into 0.0345x10-4 then proceed to subtraction.
7.85x10 4  0.0345x10 4   7.85  0.0345  x10 4  7.8155x10 4

Exercises:
Multiply and divide the following pairs of numbers.
3 2
1. 3.5 x10 and 2.0 x 10
−1 5
2. 6.3 x 10 and 2.54 x 10
−2 4 13
3. 5.98 x 10 and 3.5 x10
Add and subtract the following pairs of numbers.
1.
4.1x10 11 and 6.35x10 11
Some Quantities important to Chemistry:

Mass – the measure of the quantity of matter in an object

Volume – the amount of space occupies
m
Density (ρ) – the mass per unit volume of a substance and is given by: ρ=
v

Examples:
1. A piece of platinum metal of mass 96.4 g has a volume of 4.49 cubic cm. Calculate the
density of the element platinum?

m 96.4 g
ρ= = =21.47 g/cm3
V 4.49 cm3

2. The density of ethanol is 0.798 g/mL. Calculate the mass in kg of 1.74 gal.
3.785 L 1000 ml
1.74 gal x x =6585.9ml
1 gal 1L

m g
ρ= ; m=ρV =0.7 9 8 x 6585.9 ml=5255.54 8 g
v ml

Specific Gravity – the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of water at 4° C
- the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of
water at a specified temperature.

Note: For water: ρ = 1 g/ml =1 g/cu. cm =1000 kg/ cu. m

density of substance ρsubs

sp gr = =
density of water ρ water

mass of substance m subs

sp gr = =
mass of water m water

Ex:
1. A volumetric flask holds 4.99 g of water at 25 °C. When filled with a sample of oil, it holds
3.58 g. What is the specific gravity of the oil?

mass of substance 3.58 g

sp gr = = =0.72
mass of water 4.99 g

2. If the gasoline tank in your automobile holds 20 L, what is the mass of the fuel when the
tank is filled with gasoline that has a specific gravity of 0.68?
20 L x 1000 mL = 20,000 mL
1L
density of substance 1g
sp gr = ; ρsubs =sp gr x ρ water=0.68 x =0.68 g/ml
density of water ml

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 g
m=ρ V =0.68 x 20,000 ml=13,600 g
ml

Temperature – degree of hotness or coldness of a substance and can be measured using

thermometer. Possible units are: Celcius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F), Kelvin (K) and Rankine (R)
9
° F= ° C +32=1.8 ° C +32
5

5 ° F−32
° C= ( ° F−32 )=
9 1.8

K=° C+ 273

R=° F+ 460

Examples.
1. Normal body temperature is 98.6 °F, convert this temperature to Celcius and Kelvin.

5 ° F−32 ° F−32 98.6−32

° C= ( ° F−32 )= = = =370 C
9 9 1.8 1.8
5

K=37+273=310 K

2. Convert the melting point of lead, 321 .5 °C to Fahrenheit, Rankine and Kelvin.

9
° F= ° C +32=1.8 ( 321.5 ) +32=610.7
5

R=610.7+460=1070.7 R

K=321.5+ 273=594.5 K

Heat ( Q) – energy that flows from a hotter body to a cooler one; determined not only by
temperature and also the amount and kind of matter present. Possible Units are: British
Thermal Unit (BTU), calorie, joule

Specific Heat (cp) – the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of a
substance by 1°C or 1 K ( calorie/ g-°C)
Note: cp for H2O = 1 calorie/ g-°C = 1 calorie/ g – K

Q = m cp ∆t
= m c p ( Tf – T i )

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 Example:
1. What amount of heat is required to raise the temperature of 4 kg of water from 20 °C to
75°C?
Q = m cp ∆t
= m cp ( Tf – Ti )
= 4000g (1 cal/g-°C) (75-20) °C
= 4000 cal/°C (55) °C
= 220,000 cal
2. a. How many calories are required to heat 100 grams of copper (c p = 0.093 cal / g –K ) from
10 °C to 100°C?
b. The same quantity of heat is added to 100 grams of aluminum (c p = 0.217 cal / g –K ) at
10 °C. Which gets hotter, copper or aluminum?

a. Q = m cp ∆t
= m cp ( Tf – Ti )
= 100g (0.093 cal/g-°C) (100-10) °C
= 837 cal

b. Q = m cp ∆t;

= m c p ( Tf – T i )
= 100g (0.217 cal/g-°C) (100-10) °C
= 1953 cal

Aluminum gets hotter since it has a higher specific heat than copper;

Exercises:

1. The speed of sound air at room temperature is about 343 m/sec. Calculate the speed in miles/hr.
2. The steel ball has a diameter of 8 mm and a mass of 1.75 g? What is its density in lb/ft3?
3. A wood block 10 in x 6 in x 2 in weighs 3 lb. What is the density of the block in SI units (kg/m3)?
4. Calculate the mass of a cube of platinum of edge length 0.040 mm having a specific gravity of 21.4.
5. Find the amount of calories needed to heat 100grams aluminum from 77 to 220˚F.( Specific heat =
0.217 cal / g –˚F)

Lesson 6: Common Measuring Instruments

Imagine that you are tasked to measure the length and width of your classroom using
your feet as a measuring device. You must have realized through that activity that to have good
measurements, you will need a better instrument than your feet. This is the same realization
that people throughout history have discovered as they study the physical world. And it was the
same realization which resulted to the invention and development of the following common
measuring instruments.

Measuring Devices for Length

Instrument Illustration Description

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 Common rulers have lengths of
Ruler approximately 30 cm or 12 inches. Its
smallest division is in millimeter.

A meter stick has a length of one

Meter Sticks meter. Its smallest division is in
millimeter.

A tape measure is a convenient

measuring device because of its
flexibility which permits measurement
Tape Measure
around curves or corners. A tape
measure of 25 or even 100 feet can
wind into a relatively small container.
Common vernier calipers can measure
objects with length of up to 12 cm. It
Vernier Caliper may be used to measure depth,
diameters and spans. Its smallest
division is in 0.1 mm.
A micrometer caliper can be used to
give accurate measurements of
Micrometer Caliper diameters of thin wires and even the
thickness of a sheet of paper. Its
smallest division is in 0.01 mm.

Measuring Devices for Mass

Instrument Illustration Description
The triple-beam balance measures the
mass of an object by balancing the
unknown mass with sliding masses of
Triple-Beam Balance
known values. The triple-beam balance is
usually calibrated in grams with a least
count of 0.1g.
The platform balance measures the mass
of an object by balancing the unknown
Platform Balance
mass with a set of masses of known
values.
Spring Balance A spring balance or spring scale is used to
measure weight1, which is the force of
gravity exerted on a mass. Most spring
scales can be calibrated for the accurate
measurement of mass in the location in
which they are used. Spring scales can
measure weights of about 1 N to 20 N

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 which corresponds approximately to 0.1 kg
to 2 kg.

Measuring Devices for Time

Instrument Illustration Description
The stopwatch is typically designed to
start at the press of the top button and
stop by pressing the button a second
Stopwatch
time to display the elapsed time. A press
of the second button then resets the
stopwatch to zero.

Measuring Devices for Liquid Volume

Instrument Illustration Description
A beaker is a cylindrical glass or
plastic vessel used for holding liquids.
It is a multi-purpose piece of
equipment used for containing a
Beakers
chemical reaction, measuring liquids,
heating them over a Bunsen burner's
flame or collecting them in a
titration experiment. 
A burette is a cylindrical, laboratory
glass apparatus that is used to
measure the volume of liquids. It is
very accurate and is used for precision
Burette experiments, such as titration. For a
burette to perform optimally, and give
precise results, it must be properly
cleaned.

A distilling flask is a round bottomed

container that has two openings and
some sometimes a long neck. It is
Distilling Flask made entirely from glass and is used
for chemical distillation processes. It is
also a key equipment in almost all
laboratories.

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 An erlenmeyer flask is a cone-shaped
container with neck, so you can hold
the flask or attach a clamp or use a
stopper. Erlenmeyer flasks are used to
measure, mix, and store liquids. The
shape makes this flask very stable.
They are one of the most common and
erlenmeyer flask useful pieces of chemistry lab
glassware. Most Erlenmeyer flasks are
made of borosilicate glass so that they
can be heated over a flame or
autoclaved. The most common sizes
of erlenmeyer flasks are 250 ml and
500 ml. They can be found in 50, 125,
250, 500, 1000 ml. 

A Florence flask is a laboratory

glassware that is used to hold
chemical solutions. It has a long neck
with a round or flat bottom. Most of the
Florence flask Florence flasks are made of
borosilicate glass, which is hard to
break even when exposed to high
amounts of heat.

A graduated cylinder is a relatively

slim glass or plastic cylinder used
specifically for calibrating beakers or
measuring a liquid's volume.
Graduated cylinders come in a
Graduated cylinder variety of sizes such as 10 ml, 25 ml,
50 ml,100 ml, 500 ml and 1,000 ml.
Scientists take measurements by
viewing, at eye-level, the lowest point
of the convex dip that the liquid in the
cylinder makes. 

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 A pipette transfers relatively small
amounts of liquid. In the most
commonly used
pipettes, experimenters draw liquid
into one end of a glass or plastic
Pipette cylinder by the prior squeezing of the
rubber or plastic ball at the opposite
end. The amount of liquid able to be
drawn into the pipette is usually fixed,
to enable accuracy in measurement. 

Laboratory Works 1: Uncertainty in Measurement

Use any appropriate method to approximate the ff:

1. The thickness in millimeters of one page of your book: _________________

2. The height in meters from your floor to the ceiling:_________________
3. The mass in grams of one piece in any pack of cracker/biscuit:__________
4. The volume in ml of 8 glasses of water: __________
5. The number of minutes you spent in social media in one whole day: _____

Guide questions:

1. What prominent method did you use in the above activity? Do you think your
measurements are close enough to the actual value? defend
2. Is it advisable to use the meter stick to measure the length of a notebook? Why or why
not?
3. Identify 5 measuring devices and cite their advantages and disadvantages.

Reference:
https://laboratoryapparatus.weebly.com/volume.html

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You may also visit:

https://preparatorychemistry.com/Bishop_Book_8_eBook.pdf
http://janus.astro.umd.edu/astro/scinote/
https://www.kentschools.net/ccarman/cp-chemistry/practice-quizzes/si-conversions/

For laboratory Devices: https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/chemical-safety/basics/glassware-

and-equipment.html

Laboratory Works 2

Salt and Sugar Solubility

Materials:

2-3 tablespoons of sugar

2-3 tablespoons of salt
Around 100 ml water (or volume of your choice)
3 more 100ml solvent (or volume of your choice). Some of possible liquids are: Vinegar, alcohol,
lemonade, ginger tea, apple juice, but you can choose the ones mostly available to you.
Corresponding container
Timer

Procedure:

1. Prepare two sets of water of the same amount in a container. Put salt on one container
and sugar (amount should just be enough to be dissolved) on the other. Make sure you
put equal amounts of salt and sugar on the containers. Record the time it takes for each
to dissolve completely
2. Repeat step 1 using three more liquids. Make sure the liquids are in room temperature.
3. Fill out the table and answer the following questions.

LIQUID Time for Time for salt Which one is

sugar to to dissolve more

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 dissolve completely soluble?
completely
Water
Liquid 2
Liquid 3
Liquid 4

Guide questions:

1. Which one dissolved faster and better in the liquids? Why do you think so?
2. Do you think that the chemical natures of the solute and the solvent affected the
dissolving rates? 
3. What do you think will happen if the liquids are warmer? Why?
4. What do you think will happen if you increase the amount of sugar or salt poured in the
liquids?
5. If you don’t have sugar or salt, what other material can you use? Why?

For further discussions and practice problems, you may also visit:

https://serc.carleton.edu/mathyouneed/density/densitysp.html
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry
https://www.nust.na/sites/default/files/documents/Chapter%205_Properties%20and%20Structure%20of
%20Matter.pd

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