Chapter 2: Complex Analysis

Most of the functions with domain ℝ that we use in calculus can be meaningfully extended to the
larger domain ℂ.

Trigonometric Form of a a Complex Number

distance X is the
modulus of Z

Multiplication and Division of Complex Number

z$ = X$ (cos Y$ + A sin Y$ )
Z% = X% (cos Y% + A sin Y% )
Z$ ⋅ Z% = X$ (cos Y$ + A sin Y$ ) ⋅ X% (cos Y% + A sin Y% )
Z$ ⋅ Z% = X$ X% [(cos Y$ cos Y% − sin Y$ sin Y% + A(sin Y$ cos Y% + &B@Y$ sin Y% )]
Z$ ⋅ Z% = X$ X% [cos(Y$ + Y% ) + A sin(Y$ + Y% )]

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De Moivre’s Theorem

Euler’s Formula
!!" = #$% & + ( %)* &

Proposition: The Taylor series of the exponential function P' is still valid if z is a complex
number. We will also need the formula for powers of i:

Note that: the formula is periodic in the exponent with period 4, so that

Recalled that:

By computing the Taylor series of P 64

Euler’s formula is useful in terms of deriving more difficult trigonometric formulas from
easier formulas for the exponential function. Note that &B@# is the real part of the complex
number P 64 and @A4# is the imaginary part of the complex number P 64 . We can write:

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 We have: P 6(809) = cos(] + ^) + A@A4(] + ^) (>. =)
P 6(809) = P 68 P 69 = (cos] + A@A4])(&B@^ + A@A4^)
= &B@]&B@^ + A&B@]@A4^ + A&B@^@A4] + A % @A4]@A4^
P 6(809) = (&B@]&B@^ − @A4]@A4^) + A(&B@]@A4^ + &B@^@A4]) (>. >)

By Equating real and imaginary parts of (2.1) and (2.2), we see:

cos(] + ^) = &B@]&B@^ − @A4]@A4^

(Sum formula of sine and cosine)
@A4(] + ^) = (&B@]@A4^ + &B@^@A4])

Euler’s formula allows us to rewrite exponentials in terms of trigonometric functions. It is also useful
to be able to go the other way: write trigonometric functions in terms of exponentials.

We have:
cos(−Y) = cos (Y)
sin(−Y) = sin (Y)
P 6; = cos(Y) + A@A4(Y) (>. ?)
16;
P = cos(Y) − A@A4(Y) (>. a)

By adding and subtracting (2.3) and (2.4):

e<= + P 16; e<= − P 16;

= &B@Y, = @A4Y
2 2A

P %6; + 2P 6; P 16; + P 1%6; P %6; + 2 + P 1%6;

cos % Y = =
4 4
P %6; − 2P 6; P 16; + P 1%6; P %6; − 2 + P 1%6;
sin% Y = = −K L
−4 4
4
cos % Y + sin% Y = =1
4

nth Root of a Complex Number

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 We use De Moivre’s Theorem to develop a general formula for finding the nth roots of a
nonzero complex number. Suppose that c = d(cos e + A sin e) is an nth root of Z = X(cos Y +
A sin Y). Then :

c! = Z

[d(cos e + A sin e)]! = X(cos Y + A sin Y)

d! (cos 4e + A sin 4e) = X(cos Y + A sin Y) (2.5)

Taking the absolute value of both sides:

|d! (cos 4e + A sin 4e)| = X(cos Y + A sin Y)

gd%! (cos % 4e + sin% 4e) = gX % (cos % Y + sin% Y)

gd%! = gX %

d! = X
!
d = √X

Substituing d! = X into (2.5), we obtain :

cos 4e + A sin 4e = cos Y + A sin Y

4e = Y + 2Oi

Y 2Oi
e= +
4 4

Therefore:

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