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Mathematics Tips for Air Force Group X & Y: Calculus

Calculus is mainly divided into two parts, viz. differential calculus and integral calculus. While
Differential Calculus splits up an area into small parts to calculate the rate of change, Integral
calculus joins small parts to calculate the area or volume.

Both the parts have large number of formulae (which you will need to remember). Since formulae
makes the most important part of this topic, we will discuss them first (don’t get overwhelmed just
by looking at the formulae, the more questions you will practice, the easier it will get to remember
them).

❖ Limit formulae
1) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) ; where f(x)is a polynomial or rational function in the domain of x.
𝑥→𝑎
0 ∞
2) , , (∞ −
0 ∞
∞), (∞ × 0), 1∞ , 00 , ∞0 these all are indeterminate forms.

When the limit of a rational function has an indeterminate form, then simplify the function
by common factors between numerator and denominator, using formulae or by using
L’Hospital’s rule.
3) L’Hospital’s Rule:
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
lim = lim ′
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 (𝑥)
0 ∞ 0 ∞
It’s good for 0
or ∞ forms. Derivative is continuous till it doesn’t have the 0
or ∞ forms.
𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎𝑛
4) lim = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
5) 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 1! + 2!
+ 3!
+⋯
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
6) 𝑒 −𝑥 = 1 − 1! + 2!
− 3!
+⋯
𝑥 log 𝑎 (𝑥 log 𝑎)2
7) 𝑎 𝑥 = 1 + 1!
+ 2!
+⋯
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
8) log(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2
+ 3
− 4
+⋯
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
9) log(1 − 𝑥) = − [𝑥 + 2
+ 3
+ 4
+ ⋯]
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
10) sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 3!
+ 5!
− 7!
+⋯
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
11) cos 𝑥 = 1 − 2!
+ 4!
− 6!
+⋯
sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥
12) lim 𝑥
= cos 𝑥 = 𝑥
= 1 ; (note: here x is in radians and not in degrees)
𝑥→0
sin 𝑘𝑥 tan 𝑘𝑥
13) lim 𝑥
= 𝑥 =𝑘
𝑥→0
sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥
14) lim = 𝑥 =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

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1−cos 𝑎𝑥 𝑎2
15) lim =
𝑥→0 1−cos 𝑏𝑥 𝑏2
sin 𝑎𝑥 tan 𝑎𝑥 𝑎
16) lim = tan 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑏
𝑥→0 sin 𝑏𝑥
1 𝑥
17) lim (1 + 𝑥) = 𝑒
𝑥→∞
𝑛(𝑛+1)
18) ∑ 𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 = 2
𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
19) ∑ 𝑛2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 = 6

𝑛(𝑛+1) 2
20) ∑ 𝑛3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ + 𝑛3 = ( 2
)

❖ Differentiation formulae:
𝑑
1) (𝑘) = 0; where k is a constant
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
2) (𝑘. 𝑢) = 𝑘. 𝑑𝑥 ; where k is a constant and u is a function of x.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
3) (𝑢 ± 𝑣) = 𝑑𝑥 ± 𝑑𝑥 ; where u and v are functions of x.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
4) (𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤
5) (𝑢. 𝑣. 𝑤) = 𝑣𝑤. 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑤. 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑣. 𝑑𝑥 ; where u, v and w are functions of x.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
𝑑 𝑢 𝑣. −𝑢.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
6) ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑣
= 𝑣2

7) If y is a differentiable function of u and u is a differentiable function of x, then

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= × (Chain Rule)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

8) If x and y both are functions of the same variable (t), i.e. y=f (t) and x=g (t), then
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦⁄𝑑𝑡
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ⁄𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
9) 𝑑𝑥 2
= 𝑑𝑥 (𝑑𝑥 ) ; it is called second derivative.
𝑑2 𝑦
If y = f(x), then 𝑑𝑥 2 can also be written as f’’(x) or f2(x).
𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑2 𝑦
10) 𝑑𝑥 3
= 𝑑𝑥 (𝑑𝑥 2 ) ; it is called third derivative.
𝑑 𝑛
11) 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 −𝑛
12) ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑛
= 𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑑
13) 𝑑𝑥
(sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝑑
14) 𝑑𝑥
(cos 𝑥) = −sin 𝑥

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𝑑
15) (tan 𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
16) 𝑑𝑥
(cot 𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑
17) (sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
18) 𝑑𝑥
(cosec 𝑥) = −cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥
𝑑
19) 𝑑𝑥
(𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑
20) 𝑑𝑥
(𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑 1
21) 𝑑𝑥
(ln x) =𝑥
𝑑 1
22) (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 x) =
𝑑𝑥 √1−𝑥 2
𝑑 −1
23) (𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 x) =
𝑑𝑥 √1−𝑥 2
𝑑 1
24) 𝑑𝑥
(𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 x) = 1+𝑥 2
𝑑 −1
25) (𝑐𝑜𝑡 −1 x) =
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2
𝑑 1
26) (𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 x) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 −1
𝑑 −1
27) (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 x) =
𝑑𝑥 √1−𝑥 2

Integration formulae

1) ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
2) ∫ 𝑘. 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ; where k is a constant.
3) ∫(𝑢 ± 𝑣 ± 𝑤 ± ⋯ )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑤 𝑑𝑥 ±
⋯ ; where u, v, w … are functions of x.
𝑥 𝑛+1
4) ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ 𝑐; here 𝑥 ≠ −1
1
5) ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥| + 𝑐

6) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎𝑥
7) ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑎 + 𝑐

8) ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐
9) ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐
10) ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝑐
11) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ln|cos 𝑥| + 𝑐 = ln|sec 𝑥| + 𝑐
12) ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sin 𝑥| + 𝑐 = − ln|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥| + 𝑐
13) ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝑐
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14) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 − cot 𝑥| + 𝑐

15) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝑐
16) ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝑐
17) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝑐
18) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 . cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐
19) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐
1 𝑥 1
20) ∫ 2 2 𝑑𝑥 = sin−1 𝑎 + 𝑐 => ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = sin−1 𝑥 + 𝑐
√𝑎 −𝑥 √1−𝑥 2
−1 𝑥 −1
21) ∫ 2 2 𝑑𝑥 = cos −1 𝑎 + 𝑐 =>∫ 𝑑𝑥 = cos −1 𝑥 + 𝑐
√𝑎 −𝑥 √1−𝑥 2
1 1 𝑥 1
22) ∫ 𝑎2 +𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 tan−1 (𝑎) + 𝑐 => ∫ 1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = tan−1 𝑥 + 𝑐
−1 1 𝑥 −1
23) ∫ 𝑎2 +𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 cot −1 (𝑎) + 𝑐 => ∫ 1+𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = cot −1 𝑥 + 𝑐
1 1 𝑥 1
24) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sec −1 (𝑎) + 𝑐 => ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = sec −1 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥√𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑥√𝑥 2 −1
−1 1 𝑥 −1
25) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜sec −1 (𝑎) + 𝑐 => ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜sec −1 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥√𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑥√𝑥 2 −1

❖ Tips and Tricks

• Level of questions is not that tough so try not to waste your energy on very difficult
questions. Instead invest your time in understanding the basic concepts and familiarising
yourself with the different variety of questions.
• Questions in calculus are tricky and need a lot of practice. They generally cannot be solved
by putting values or using shortcuts. So solve as much questions as you can.
• Remember the formulae, it is impossible to solve questions in exam without them.
Differentiation and integration are bidirectional and their formulae can be remembered by
remembering any one of them. We have covered all the important calculus formulae here in
this article. Revise them from here time to time (and before exam).
• When the direct integration of a function is difficult, you can use these three methods of
integration:
I. Transformation method:
Eg:∫ √1 − sin 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ √𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= √(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃 = ∫(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑐
II. Substitution method:
Eg: ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (2𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑧
Let (2x+3) =z, then dz=2dx or dx= 2
𝑑𝑧 1 1
= ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑧. = ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = tan 𝑧 + 𝑐
2 2 2
1
= tan(2𝑥 + 3) + 𝑐
2
III. Integration by parts:
This method is used when integrand is the product of two functions.

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𝑑𝑢
Eg: ∫ 𝑢. 𝑣. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢. ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ ( ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
To decide which of the function should be taken first (as u), you should give priority
according to ILATE formula, where
I→ Inverse circular function
L→ Logrithmic function
A→ Algebraic function
T→ Trignometric function
E→ Exponential function
Eg: ∫ tan−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
∫ tan−1 𝑥 . 𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥 = tan−1 𝑥 ∫ 𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ ( tan−1 𝑥 ∫ 𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
−1
1 −1
1 2𝑥
= 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ∫ 2
. 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑥 2 1 + 𝑥2
1
= 𝑥 tan−1 𝑥 − log(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝑐
2

❖ Exemplar Problems:

𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐+𝒙)−𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐−𝒙)
1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =?
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙
𝟏
(A)𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 (B)1 (C)2𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 (D)0

Solution:

Using formula sin(a+b) = sin a cos b + cos a sin b

sin 2 cos 𝑥+cos 2 sin 𝑥− sin 2 cos 𝑥+cos 2 sin 𝑥

 lim 𝑥
𝑥→0
2 cos 2 sin 𝑥
 lim 𝑥
𝑥→0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
 2cos 2 lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
sin 𝑥
Here we know that lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥

 So, the answer will be (c) 2cos2

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒙
2. ∫ 𝟐 𝒅𝒙 =?
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙

(A)𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒄 (B) 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒄

(C) – 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒄 (D) 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 + 𝒄

Solution:

𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 [since cos 2x = cos2x – sin2x]
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𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
 ∫ 2 − 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
1 1
 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

 ∫(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
 – cot 𝑥 − tan 𝑥 + 𝑐
 So the correct answer is (C)

𝒅𝒚
3. Find the solution of the differential equation = 𝒆𝒙+𝒚 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒆𝒚
𝒅𝒙
𝒚𝟑 𝒙𝟑
(A)𝒆𝒙 − 𝒆𝒚 + 𝟑
=𝒄 (B) 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆𝒚 + 𝟑
=𝒄
𝒙𝟑 𝒚𝟑
(C) 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒚 + 𝟑
=𝒄 (D) 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒚 + 𝟑
=𝒄

Solution:

𝑑𝑦
 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑦 (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑦
 𝑒𝑦
= (𝑒 𝑥 +𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥

 Integrating both sides

∫ 𝑒 −𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫(𝑒 𝑥 +𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥

𝑥3
 −𝑒 −𝑦 + 𝑐 = 𝑒 𝑥 + +𝑐
3
𝑥3
 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑦 + 3
=𝑐

 So the correct answer is (C).

𝝅
𝟑
4. ∫−𝝅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 =?
𝟑

𝝅 √𝟑 𝝅 𝟏
(A) 1 (B)𝟑 − 𝟒
(C)𝟐 − 𝟒 (D) 0

Solution:

Using cos 2x = 1 – 2sin2x

𝜋
1−cos 2𝑥
 ∫−𝜋
3
2
𝑑𝑥
3
𝜋
1 3
 2
∫−𝜋(1 − cos 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
3

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1 sin 2𝑥
 [𝑥 − ]
2 2

 Putting the limit

2𝜋 −2𝜋
1 𝜋 sin 𝜋 sin
 [ − 3
+ + 3
]
2 3 2 3 2

1 2𝜋 √3 √3
 [
2 3
− 4
− 4]
𝜋 √3
 3
− 4

 Hence the correct answer is (B).

5. If 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝒙 + √𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏) then find 𝒇′(𝒙)=?

−𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
(A) (B) (C) (D)
√𝒙𝟐 −𝟏 √𝒙𝟐 −𝟏 √𝒙𝟐 +𝟏 √𝒙𝟐 +𝟏

Solution:

Using Chain Rule

1 1 . 2𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = ( ) (1 + )
2
𝑥 + √𝑥 + 1 2√𝑥 2 + 1

1 √𝑥 2 + 1 + 𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = ( )( )
𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 √𝑥 2 + 1

1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
√𝑥 2 + 1

Hence the correct answer is (C).

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