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8.1 Integration by Parts 147
Overview
The method of integration by parts is used to evaluate indefinite and definite integrals.
All the basic integration formulas encountered up to this point come from derivative rules run in the opposite
direction. The reversal of the Product Rule leads to the basic relationship for integration by parts.
• Derive the integration by parts formula, and explain that it expresses the original integral in terms of a
new integral, which must then be evaluated in order for the technique to be successful.
• Point out that the only creative component of integration by parts is choosing u and dv—the rest of the
process follows from these choices. A table is useful for organizing calculations; adding arrows to the
table (shown below) may help students remember the formula.
• Integration by parts is used most often when a product occurs in the integrand. Products also occur
frequently where substitution is the most effective means of evaluating an integral; it may be wise to
∫ x( x + 1) dx , where both methods can be illustrated.
3
cover an example, such as
• Be sure to cover repeated use of integration by parts. There are two cases to consider: integrals where
the integrand becomes less complicated at each stage (Example 3), and situations where the original
integral reappears to produce an equation that can be solved for the original integral (Example 4).
• Ask students to supply choices for u and dv after they have seen a few examples. It’s important to
illustrate what happens when a poor choice is made so that students can identify when the technique
isn’t working.
• Cover integration by parts with definite integrals. You’ll have obvious opportunities to review earlier
material here, such as the area between curves or the volume of a solid of revolution.
Interactive Figures
Figure 8.1 displays the solid of revolution when y = ln x is revolved around the x-axis.
Connections
• Several reduction formulas in this section and the next are derived using integration by parts.
• With integration by parts, we can find the antiderivatives of the functions introduced in Chapter 7,
notably the natural logarithm (Example 5) and the inverse trigonometric functions (Exercises 18 and
19). The integral of the inverse secant function requires trigonometric substitution (Section 8.3) as
well.
• We offer a proof of Taylor’s Theorem (Exercise 84 in Section 10.1) that relies on integration by parts.
Additional Activities
Section 8.1
1. a. As a first attempt at evaluating ∫ sec x dx , you might use integration by parts and try u = sec x and
dv = dx . Write the integration by parts formula that results from this choice, and explain why it’s not
helpful.
b. Note that ∫ sec x dx = ∫ sec x tan x cot x dx . Explain why manipulating the integrand in this way prepares
the integrand for a different choice of u and dv. Use integration by parts on the second integral to show that
1 1
∫ sec x dx = sin x + ∫ sin 2 x cos x dx . (Hint: Try u = cot x and dv = sec x tan x dx .)
Section 8.2
1
2. The trigonometric integral ∫ sin 2
x cos x
dx that results when sec x is integrated by parts in Step 1b is of
∫ sin x cos n x dx , where m = −2 and n = −1 , and therefore this integral calls for the change of
m
the form
1
variables u = sin x . Show that the resulting integral is ∫ u (1 − u
2 2
)
du . Hint: Multiply the numerator and
1
denominator of by cos x to prepare the integrand for the substitution u = sin x .
sin 2 x cos x
Section 8.3
3. You’ve learned that integrals involving a 2 − x 2 are transformed with the substitution x = a sin θ . Explain
1
why u = sin θ is of no use for the integral ∫ 2 du from Step 2.
u (1 − u 2 )
Section 8.4
4. Apply the technique of partial fractions to the integral in Step 2 and show that
1 1 1 1+ u
∫ u 2 (1 − u )2 du = − u + 2 ln 1 − u + C .
Final Calculations
1 1 + sin x
5. Using Steps 1, 2, and 4, show that ∫ sec x dx = 2 ln 1 − sin x + C .
6. Confirm that the answer from Step 5 is equivalent to the result given in Theorem 8.1 of Section 8.2:
∫ sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + C (see Exercise 35 in Section 8.2, which employs a devious maneuver to
arrive at the form given in Theorem 8.1).
7. Still another approach to evaluating ∫ sec x dx is found in Exercise 78 of Section 8.4. Complete this
exercise, and confirm that your answer is equivalent to ∫ sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + C .
ANSWERS:
1. a. ∫ sec x dx = x sec x − ∫ x sec x tan x dx ; the new integral is not easily evaluated.
b. Writing ∫ sec x dx = ∫ sec x tan x cot x dx suggests u = cot x and dv = sec x tan x dx because dv is readily
integrated.
1 cos x 1
2. ∫ sin 2
x cos x
dx = ∫ 2
sin x(1 − sin 2 x)
dx ; with u = sin x , the new integral is ∫ u (1 − u
2 2
)
du .
1 A B C D
4. Write = + 2+ + to discover that A = 0 , B = 1 , and C = D = 12 ; the resulting
u (1 − u ) u u 1 − u 1 + u
2 2
1 1 1 1 + sin x
5. Use u = sin x to write ∫ sec x dx = sin x − sin x + 2 ln 1 − sin x + C .
1 + sin x
6. Multiply the numerator and denominator of by 1 + sin x to arrive at
1 − sin x
1/2
1 1 + sin x (1 + sin x ) 2 1 + sin x
∫ sec x dx = ln
2 1 − sin x
+ C = ln
cos 2 x
+ C = ln
cos x
+ C = ln sec x + tan x + C .
∫x
2
1. To evaluate cos x dx using integration by parts, the best choice for u is
∫x
2
2. To evaluate cos x dx using integration by parts, the best choice for dv is
∫e
x
3. The integral sin x dx can be evaluated using
(a) a change of variables. (b) one integration by parts. (c) two integrations by parts.
4. Using integration by parts and letting u = ln x and dv = dx, the integral ∫ ln x dx becomes
∫
(a) x ln x − dx . (b) x ln x − x dx .∫ ∫
(c) ln x − dx .
∫x
2
5. Integrating by parts, cos x dx equals
0
π π π π π
(a) x cos x −
0 ∫0
x sin x dx . (b) −2 ∫ 0
x sin x dx . (c) x 2 cos x − 2
0 ∫
0
x sin x dx .
∫ xe
2x
6. The correct table to use to integrate dx most efficiently is
(a)
u=x dv = e 2x dx
1 2x
du = dx v= e
2
(b)
u = e2 x dv = xdx
1 2
du = 2e 2 x dx v= x
2
(c)
u=x dv = e x dx
du = dx v = ex
Overview
One of the challenges in teaching this material is keeping your students interested while deriving admittedly dry
recipes for integrals of powers and products of trigonometric functions. Provide motivation by explaining that
these integrals are necessary for the important topic of trigonometric substitution, and they arise again in polar,
cylindrical, and spherical coordinates.
• Start with integrals of powers and products of sine and cosine; students have some familiarity with this
∫ sin
2
material from the work they did in Section 5.5. If you have not yet introduced the integrals xdx
∫ cos
2
and xdx , make sure to give them due diligence—they occur frequently in upcoming chapters.
Review half-angle identities for sine and cosine at the same time.
• Cover reduction formulas next, as both the secant and tangent reduction formulas are necessary for
integrals of certain combinations of tan x and sec x . The secant reduction formula is particularly
important; it gets used more often than one might imagine when evaluating standard integrals that
require a trigonometric substitution. It is also used to complete an unsolved problem from Section 6.5
(the arc length of a parabola; Example 3), which reappears in Section 8.3 (Example 3).
• Theorem 8.1 completes the task of finding antiderivatives for the standard trigonometric functions.
Call upon the class to derive the integrals of tan x and cot x (you may want to provide the first crucial
sin x
step by writing ∫ tan xdx = ∫ dx ). See Additional Activities from Section 8.1 of this guide for the
cos x
integral of sec x .
• Finish lecture with integrals of products of tan x and sec x , and point out that analogous methods may
be used for integrals involving cot x and csc x (the latter integrals do not play a prominent role in the
remainder of the text).
One way to hold the attention of your class is to plan your lecture for Section 8.3 concurrently with this section.
x2
Choose an integral or two for Section 8.3, such as ∫ dx , that reduces to one of the standard forms
x2 + 1
x2
covered in Section 8.2 (the substitution x = tan θ transforms ∫ dx into ∫ tan 2 x sec xdx , which appears
x +1
2
∫ tan
2
in Example 4b of Section 8.2). When you discuss the evaluation of x sec xdx in this section, you can
announce that it will resurface in Section 8.3 in an unexpected fashion.
Connections
• Several integrals covered in this section were first encountered in Examples 3b, 5c, and 6, and
Exercises 81, 82, and 83 of Section 5.5.
• The result of a trigonometric substitution (Section 8.3) is a trigonometric integral, often of the sort
studied in this section.
• Many of the polar curves studied in Chapter 11 involve trigonometric functions and consequently,
integration of polar functions leads to trigonometric integrals. Trigonometric integrals also arise in the
context of cylindrical and spherical coordinates.
• Line integrals along circles, ellipses, and spirals involve trigonometric integrals when the standard
parameterizations for these curves are employed.
Additional Activities
Suggested Guided project: Mercator projections is a guided project that tells the story of how the 16th century
geographer Gerardus Mercator solved a long-standing problem in navigation; its solution involves integrating
the secant function. The result of this project is used in Exercise 60 of this section in the text.
∫ cos
2
1. Which identity is most useful in evaluating x dx ?
∫ sin
2
2. Which identity is most useful in evaluating x dx ?
∫ sin
3
3. Which identity is most useful in evaluating x cos 2 x dx ?
∫ sec
4
4. Which identity is most useful in evaluating x tan 4 x dx ?
π
5. The value of ∫0
cos 2 x dx is
π /4
6. The value of ∫π
− /4
tan x sec 2 x dx is
Overview
Be aware that this section contains two obstacles to effective instruction. First, you’ll need to decide how to
approach trigonometric substitution from a motivational point of view. It’s reasonable to provide no motivation
at all. That is, state the rule that when a 2 − x 2 appears in the integrand of a difficult integral, we simply try the
substitution x = a sin θ with the hope that the new integral will be easier to evaluate. Show how this change of
variables transforms the difference a 2 − x 2 into the product a 2 cos 2 θ , discuss why this transformation is
beneficial in the context of simplifying square roots, and proceed from there.
Alternatively, you can explain that when we encounter, for example, the integral ∫ 4 − x 2 dx , the square root of
a difference of squares cannot be simplified. However, square roots of products of squares are easy to simplify.
At this point, you may appeal to either a geometric argument (see margin note and figure on p. 457), or an
algebraic argument (the trigonometric identity 1 − sin 2 x = cos 2 x , when multiplied by a 2 , expresses the
difference of squares as a product of squares). Both arguments suggest the substitution x = a sin θ . Analogous
lines of reasoning lead to the substitutions x = a tan θ and x = a sec θ .
Another decision concerns the amount of attention paid to domain restrictions associated with inverse
trigonometric functions, and what they imply about standard trigonometric substitutions. Though we don’t
suggest you ignore them altogether, it’s really only the secant substitution that causes theoretical difficulties
(due to the common choice of the domain [0, π / 2) ∪ (π / 2, π ] for the purposes of defining the inverse secant
function). All the Basic Skills exercises that involve the secant substitution (e.g. Exercise 16) are appropriately
restricted so that you may gloss over the details with no fear of students committing mathematical errors.
• Begin by explaining that trigonometric substitutions are used in integrals where the expressions
a 2 − x 2 , a 2 + x 2 , or x 2 − a 2 occur as a factor in the integrand.
• Provide examples of each type, utilizing reference triangles to illustrate the relationship between x and
θ . Be sure to include some definite integrals in the mix, and cover at least one example where double
angle identities come into play (Example 4). Finally, one of the goals of the next section (constructing
the theoretical framework for integrating any rational function with real coefficients) hinges on the
technique of completing the square (Example 5).
• Point out the pitfalls of ignoring the differential dx, which result in erroneous solutions.
Connections
• Example 3 resolves the open question posed in Example 3 of Section 6.5 regarding the arc length of a
parabola.
• Refer students to the front papers of the text for a review of pertinent trigonometric identities.
• Right-triangle sketches (reference triangles) were first introduced in Section 7.5. Refer students to
Examples 2 and 4c (Section 7.5) if they need a refresher.
• As noted in Section 8.2 of this guide, an effective way to provide motivation for learning trigonometric
integrals is to design a trigonometric substitution integral that reduces to one of the standard
trigonometric integrals.
Additional Activities
Suggested Guided Project: A pursuit problem is a guided project that uses a trigonometric substitution to arrive
at the path taken by a person pursuing a dog. The result is the function found in Exercise 58 of Section 4.3.
dx
1. The appropriate change of variables for the integral ∫ x + 25
2
is
dx
2. The appropriate change of variables for the integral ∫ x2 − 4
is
dx
3. The appropriate change of variables for the integral ∫ 9 − x2
is
dx
4. The appropriate change of variables for the integral ∫ 8 + x2
is
dx
5. The appropriate change of variables for the integral ∫ 9 − 4 x2
is
dx
6. The appropriate change of variables for the integral ∫ x + 2 x + 10
2
is
Overview
Begin with a quick discussion of the theoretical framework surrounding the method of partial fractions. State
the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra (more accurately, a direct consequence of the theorem for polynomials
with real coefficients): If g is a polynomial of positive degree with real coefficients, then g has at least one
complex zero. Explain that this theorem implies g can be factored into linear and irreducible quadratic factors
(with real coefficients) due to the fact that complex roots occur in conjugate pairs (again, for polynomials with
real coefficients).
From here, it’s simply a matter of working through each of the cases (simple and repeated linear factors, and
simple and repeated irreducible quadratic factors) implied by these theoretical results.
• Be sure to state the conditions that must be met before the method of partial fractions can be employed
(if f ( x) = p( x) / q( x) , we assume that p and q share no common factors and that f is proper).
• Provide an example that illustrates how to deal with the case where f is improper. Be prepared to
review polynomial division.
• We suggest avoiding the case of repeated irreducible quadratic factors in class, unless you want to use
technology to solve large systems of equations (in the text, this case occurs only in the exercise set).
Conclude the lecture by letting students know that with partial fractions, trigonometric substitutions, and
standard substitutions, they can theoretically find an antiderivative for any rational function, which is an
impressive accomplishment.
Connections
The method of partial fractions is sometimes used to evaluate telescoping sums (and of course it continues to
appear in integral calculations).
Additional Activities
• Logistic growth is a guided project that derives a family of functions used for population models given
that a carrying capacity limits the growth rate of the population; a key step involves partial fractions.
• Terminal velocity is a guided project that models the motion of a falling body under the assumptions
that the resistant force (due to friction or air resistance) is proportional to the velocity or the square of
the velocity of the falling object.
2
2. The partial fraction decomposition of is
x −1
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) + . (b) − . (c) − .
x −1 x +1 x −1 x +1 x +1 x −1
1
3. The correct form of the partial fraction decomposition for is
x3 − 5 x 2 − 6 x
A B A Bx + C A B C
(a) + 2 . (b) + 2 . (c) + + .
x x − 5x − 6 x x − 5x − 6 x x − 6 x +1
1
4. The correct form of the partial fraction decomposition for is
x +x
3
A B A B A Bx + C
(a) + 2 . (b) + . (c) + 2 .
x x +1 x 2
x +1 x x +1
1
5. The correct form of the partial fraction decomposition for is
( x − 4) ( x 2 + x + 9)
2
A B A B Cx + D A B
(a) + 2 . (b) + + 2 . (c) + 2 .
x−4 x + x+9 x − 4 ( x − 4) 2
x + x+9 x−4 x + x+9
x2 + 1
6. To evaluate ∫ x −1
dx , the first step is to
Overview
Integral tables and computer algebra systems (CAS) are introduced as additional tools that are used to evaluate
integrals.
This is a short section that gives students the opportunity to get comfortable with other tools for evaluating
integrals, namely tables and technology. It also summarizes the various methods used to evaluate integrals
(analytical methods, tables, and computer algebra systems). The table of integrals in the end papers of the text is
sufficient for the problems in the exercise set, though some exercises require manipulation of the integrand
before the table can be used. Point out additional resources: many web sites offer tables of integrals, and others
give free access to a CAS without the need of a software package. See, for example,
http://integrals.wolfram.com/index.jsp; this page allows users to type in an integrand and Wolfram’s
Mathematica does the rest of the work.
If you do cover the use of a CAS, be sure to discuss the idiosyncrasies of whatever software package you
3
choose. For instance, the aforementioned website gives ∫ dx = 3log x . Students should be told that most
x
computer algebra systems do not report the constant of integration, and in this case, the absolute value of x was
neglected. In addition, explain that some fields, computer science in particular, use log for ln—the answer of
3log x (regardless of the missing absolute value and constant of integration) is incorrect if interpreted as the
common logarithm.
Connections
The focus of this section is the use of tables and technology to evaluate indefinite integrals; in Section 8.6 we
use technology to evaluate (or find approximations to) definite integrals.
Additional Activities
Suggested Guided Project: Period of the pendulum is a guided project that investigates a second-order
differential equation associated with the motion of a pendulum. The result is a complete elliptic integral of the
first kind, which is then analyzed to approximate the period. This integral is also featured in Exercise 71 of this
section.
1
∫e
x
2. A CAS in symbolic mode would give what value for dx ?
0
(a) 1.71828 (b) e – 1 (c) e
π /3
3. A CAS working in numerical (approximation) mode would give what value for ∫ 0
cos x dx ?
3
(a) (b) 0.866025 (c) 0.5
2
4. CAS #1 gives the value of an indefinite integral as ln |x + 1| + 2ln |x| + 3ln 4 + C. CAS #2 gives the value of
an indefinite integral as ln x2| x + 1| + C. What do you conclude?
dx
5. To make the integral ∫ x2 + 2 x − 8
match a standard integral in a table, the first step is to
(a) complete the square. (b) integrate by parts. (c) make a trig substitution.
∫ 4 − x 2 dx ∫x ∫ sec
12 2
(a) (b) sin x dx (c) x dx
π π π
(a) ∫
0
sin 2 x dx (b) ∫
0
sin 2x dx (c) ∫ 0
sin( x 2 ) dx
Overview
The formulas for the Midpoint Rule, Trapezoid Rule, and Simpson’s Rule are derived, and then used to
approximate the values of definite integrals.
There are a variety of ways instructors choose to cover this material. You can approach it from a purely
theoretical viewpoint, without much calculation involved, or you can bring the full gamut of technology to bear
on evaluating definite integrals. Some guidelines are provided here; use them as you see fit.
• If you already covered midpoint Riemann sums, there’s no need to duplicate the effort. Simply point
out that the Midpoint Rule is the midpoint Riemann sum from Section 5.1.
• Derive the Trapezoid Rule. One nice way to interpret the formula: T (n) = ( L(n) + R (n)) / 2 ; that is, the
Trapezoid Rule is the average of the left and right Riemann sums. This can be shown with an algebraic
argument, or by appealing to geometry (the net area of the trapezoid associated with the
kth subinterval is the average of the net areas of the rectangles used for left and right sums; this
interpretation works best for nonnegative functions).
• Explain that Simpson’s Rule uses area under segments of parabolas to produce approximations;
deriving the rule may take too much class time. If you do cover Simpson’s Rule, it’s best to include the
Trapezoid Rule so that the computational formula S (2n) = (4T (2n) − T (n)) / 3 can be utilized. Make it
clear that the rule is valid only when n is an even integer. Also note that Simpson’s Rule can be
assigned as a guided project (see Additional Activities below).
• Use the rules to evaluate a few definite integrals. In the text, we focus on integrals whose values are
known so that error analysis can be performed. Explain that an approximation isn’t very useful if we
can’t find bounds on the error, and then point to Theorem 8.2, which is applied when the value of a
definite integral is not known. The ideas of numerical integration are also used to evaluate integrals of
functions represented only by data (Example 5).
• Ideally, you should have your students write a small program implementing one or all three rules. This
can be done on a spreadsheet, programmable calculator, or a CAS without too much trouble, though it
does take time to explain how to write the code (and for this reason, it may be best suited for a
numerical analysis class). As mentioned previously, once the code for the Trapezoid Rule is written,
the formula S (2n) = (4T (2n) − T (n)) / 3 allows one to compute Simpson’s Rule approximations easily.
Interactive Figures
Connections
The numerical methods presented in this section are generalizations of the Riemann sums (which use
rectangles) from Chapter 5.
Additional Activities
Suggested Guided Project: Simpson’s Rule is a guided project that can be assigned for independent study.
2. If you use the Midpoint Rule on the interval [−4, 5] with ∆x = 0.1, then the number of subintervals is
3. In general, when using the Trapezoid Rule, if the number of subintervals is increased by a factor of 4, the
error should decrease by roughly a factor of
4
4. The formula ∫0
f ( x ) dx ≈ 2( f (1) + f (3)) is an approximation by what rule?
6 1
5. The formula ∫0
f ( x ) dx ≈ ( f (1) + f (3) + f (5)) is an approximation by what rule?
3
6. If the Trapezoid Rule with n = 64 does not give an approximation with enough accuracy, what might you
do?
(a) Use the Midpoint Rule instead. (b) Increase n. (c) Increase ∆x.
Overview
Improper integrals are defined and the techniques used to evaluate them are given.
Students usually catch on quickly to the ideas necessary to evaluate improper integrals, and as a result, this
material is straightforward to teach.
1 b
• Provide an introductory example—we chose
x2 ∫
dx in the text—of an integral over a finite interval
1
[a, b] , and then ask what happens as b → ∞ (choose an integral that converges). Introduce the
∞
notation ∫
a
f ( x)dx for the answer, present formal definitions for improper integrals with infinite
∞
intervals of integration, and define the terms converge and diverge. Give warning that ∫−∞
f ( x)dx
b ∞ c
should not be evaluated as lim ∫ f ( x)dx , and that both ∫ f ( x)dx and ∫ f ( x)dx need to converge
b →∞ −b c −∞
∞
before we can claim that ∫−∞
f ( x)dx converges.
• Cover Example 2, an important result that reappears in Chapter 9 (the integral test and p-series).
• Define improper integrals with an unbounded integrand, discussing cases in which the integrand
becomes unbounded both at an endpoint of the interval of integration and at an interior point.
• For in-class examples, it’s best to include a wide variety of integrals to review earlier material, but at
the same time to choose integrands whose antiderivatives are not too elusive. That way, the focus
remains on the improper nature of the integral, rather than on difficult integration.
• Students have no trouble spotting improper integrals with an infinite interval of integration. However,
they must be taught to adopt the habit of inspecting the integrand and determining whether it becomes
unbounded at any point in the interval. At the end of class, verify whether your students have learned
∞ dx
this important skill; an integral such as ∫ 2 is ideal for this purpose (ask them to introduce
0 x − 4x + 4
limits and take the first step in evaluating the integral—the solution is not important here).
• Improper integrals find widespread use in applied problems; be sure to advertise their utility with at
least one example.
Interactive Figures
Connections
We make use of improper integrals when using the Integral Test for series (Chapter 9); they also appear on
occasion in subsequent exercise sets, including multiple integrals.
Additional Activities
Suggested Guided Project: How long will your iPod last? is a guided project that estimates the average lifetime
of an iPod by using a failure distribution function and improper integrals.
1
4. ∫ 0
x −1/3 dx
(a) equals 3/2. (b) equals 2/3. (c) diverges.
∞
5. ∫ 0
e − x dx
(a) equals e. (b) diverges. (c) equals 1.
∞
6. ∫ 0
e x dx
(a) equals e. (b) diverges. (c) equals 1.
∞
1
7. For what values of p does the integral ∫
1 xp
dx converge?
3
8. If f is continuous on (2, 3] and lim f ( x ) = −∞ , then
x →2 ∫2
f ( x ) dx is defined as
3 c 3
(a) lim−
c →2 ∫c
f ( x ) dx . (b) lim−
c →3 ∫2
f ( x ) dx . (c) lim+
c →2 ∫c
f ( x ) dx .
Overview
We introduce techniques for solving basic differential equations. In addition, direction fields are employed to
explain the geometry of first-order differential equations, and to give students a glimpse of numerical methods
used to solve differential equations.
The purpose of this section is to expose students to the basic ideas involved in solving elementary differential
equations. We can’t go too far afield without encountering concepts best suited to a full-term differential
equations course, so our scope is limited.
• Open with general remarks that allow you to define the vocabulary associated with differential
equations.
• Review the solution of the simplest initial value problem (of the sort encountered in Section 4.8):
y ′ (t ) = F (t ) , F (a) = b .
• Derive the solution to the first-order linear equation y ′(t ) = ky (t ) + b, and explain the meaning of each
of its terms in an applied context. If you covered Section 7.4, make the connection between
y ′ (t ) = ky (t ) + b and the basic relationship governing exponential growth and decay (that
is, y ′ (t ) = ky (t ) ).
• Explain what it means for a differential equation to be separable, and work on a few examples with the
class. Make the distinction between the general solution and the solution to an initial value problem.
• Your students have likely encountered logistic growth models in other classes (they are a common
element of the curriculum in, e.g., algebra and biology). Cover Example 4 (linked to Example 6),
which derives the solution of a differential equation for logistic growth.
• Introduce students to direction fields to enhance their geometric intuition about general solutions of a
differential equation and solutions to initial value problems. Use the PowerPoint slides that accompany
the text, or software of your preference, to generate good graphics.
• Point out that direction fields allow us to easily generate a geometric/numerical solution to the general
first-order differential equation y ′ (t ) = F (t , y ) even when we can’t solve it analytically.
Interactive Figures
Figures 8.31–8.32 and 8.34 illustrate direction fields and the impact of changing the initial condition.
Connections
Differential equations were first introduced in Sections 4.8 and 6.1. In Section 10.4, we explore series solutions
to differential equations.
Additional Activities
Suggested Guided Projects: Cooling coffee, Euler’s method for differential equations, and Predator-prey
models.
• Cooling coffee is a guided project that employs Newton’s Law of Cooling to model the temperature of
coffee, with an added twist: Cold milk is added to the coffee to reach a desired temperature as quickly
as possible.
• Euler’s method for differential equations is a guided project that uses direction fields and an iterative
process to find a numerical solution to a differential equation.
• Predator-prey models is a guided project that investigates the relationship between lynx and hare
populations, and proposes a model based on differential equations that mirror the interactions between
these populations.
(iii) y ′ + sin y = 1 .
(a) (i) (b) (i) and (iii) (c) (i) and (ii)
(a) (i) (b) (i) and (iii) (c) (i) and (ii)
6. The general solution of the equation y ′ + 4 y = 8 is y(t) = Ce–4t + 2. What is the solution of the differential
equation that satisfies the initial condition y(0) = 9?
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (i) and (iii) (c) (i)
8. Consider the equation y ′ = y ( y − 1) with the initial condition y(0) = A. For what values of A is the solution
decreasing for all t ≥ 0 ?
1. Explain how integration by parts results from reversing the product rule for derivatives.
dx
2. What trigonometric substitution should be used for the integral ∫ (x 2
+ 9)3/2
?
dy
3. What trigonometric substitution should be used for the integral ∫ (16 − y ) 2 3/2
?
x3
5. What is the first step in evaluating the integral ∫x 2
−3
dx ?
dx
6. Write the general form of the partial fraction decomposition for the integral ∫x 2
− 25
.
dx
7. Write the general form of the partial fraction decomposition for the integral ∫ x ( x + 1) .
2
dx
8. Write the general form of the partial fraction decomposition for the integral ∫ x( x 2
+ x + 1)
.
∞
9. Explain how you would evaluate the integral ∫
2
e−3 x dx .
4 dx
10. Explain how you would evaluate the integral ∫
0 10 x
.
∞ dx
11. Does ∫2 x 5/ 2
have a finite value? Explain.
2 dx
12. Does ∫1 x −1
have a finite value? Explain.
15. Explain how to solve the separable equation g ( y ) y ′ (t ) = h(t ) , where g and h are known functions.
1–2. Volumes of solids Find the volume of the solid that is generated when the following regions are revolved
as described.
1. The region bounded by f ( x) = xe− x , x = ln10 and the x -axis is revolved about the x -axis.
2. The region bounded by f ( x) = ln x and the x -axis on [1, e2 ] is revolved about the y -axis.
3–4. Integrals involving ∫ ln x dx Use a substitution to reduce the following integrals to ∫ ln u du . Then
evaluate the resulting integral.
(
ln 2 x + 1 ) dx
3. ∫ (
e2 x ln e2 x + 1 dx) 4. ∫ x
5–8. Reduction formulas Use a reduction formula to evaluate the following integrals.
∫ sin ∫ cos
5 6
5. 2x dx 6. 3t dt
∫x 2 ∫ sin θ cos θ dθ
2 x 3 6
7. dx 8.
9–12. Computer algebra system for indefinite integrals Use a computer algebra system to evaluate the
following indefinite integrals. Assume that a is a positive real number.
∫ sin ∫x a 2 − x 2 dx
3
9. x cos 4 x dx 10. 3
dx
∫x ∫e
−2t
11. 12. cos 2π t dt
3x + 6
13–17. Computer algebra system for definite integrals Use a CAS to evaluate the following definite
integrals. In each case find an exact value of the integral (obtained by a symbolic method) and find an
approximate value (obtained by a numerical method). Compare the results.
4 π /2 sin 2 x
13. ∫3
(25 − x 2 )3/2 dx 14. ∫
0 sin x + cos2 x
2
dx
2π dx π /2
15. ∫0 5 + 3cos x
16. ∫
0
sin 4 x dx
1 ln x
17. ∫ 1 + x dx
0
18–19. Geometry problems Use a table of integrals to answer the following questions.
18. Find the arc length of the curve y = x 2 + 10 on the interval [0, 4] .
19. The region bounded by the graph of y = ( x + 2) 2 and the x-axis on the interval [0, 4] is revolved about the
y-axis. What is the volume of the solid that is formed?
substitution u = x 2 + 6 .
21–24. Miscellaneous integrals Use the method of your choice to evaluate the following integrals.
csc x
21. ∫ 1 + 2 cos x dx 22. ∫ 1 + e x dx
1− x x2 / 3
23. ∫ 1+ x
dx ( x = u 2 ) 24. ∫ x +1
dx ( x = u 3 )
25–28. Infinite integrands Evaluate the following integrals or state that they diverge.
1 dx 1 dx
25. ∫−1 ( x + 1) 2
26. ∫ 0 1− x
0 x 2
∫
dx
27.
−1 x + 1
dx 28. ∫1 x − 5x + 4
2
∞ dx
29. Doubly infinite integral Evaluate the following integral: ∫ −∞ e + e− x
x
30. By all means Explain why the following integral is improper. Then use the method of your choice to
∞ dx
evaluate or approximate the integral. An exact value is given for comparison.
0 x (1 + x ) ∫
=π
—¡Chitón, chitón por todos los santos del cielo! —dijo don Benigno
poniéndole la mano en la boca para hacerle callar.
Participaba el héroe de aquel noble ardor; pero temía que tales
demostraciones les trajeran a entrambos algún perjuicio. Tembloroso y
ruborizado, Cordero llevó a su amigo fuera del verde laberinto
incitándole a que callara, porque —y lo dijo en la plenitud de la
convicción— si el obispo Abarca y el ministro Calomarde llegaban a
tener noticia de lo que se habló en los jardines, no firmarían ni en tres
siglos. Salvador tranquilizó al buen comerciante sobre aque
endiablado negocio de las firmas, y cuando se separaron invitole a que
comieran juntos aquella tarde. Excusose don Benigno, por sentirse, a
oír la invitación, tocado de aquella misma inquietud o recelo de que
antes hablamos; pero las reiteradas cortesanías del otro le vencieron
al fin. Mientras Cordero entraba en la casa de Pajes pensando en e
convite, en la muerte del rey, en la firma, y, sobre todo, en su familia de
los Cigarrales, Salvador penetró en Palacio y no se le vio más en todo
el día.
Era aquel el 18 de septiembre, día inolvidable en los anales de la
guerra civil, porque si bien en él no se disparó un solo cartucho, fue un
día que engendró sangrientas batallas; un día en el cual se puede
decir figuradamente que se cargaron todos los fusiles y cañones
Desde muy temprano volvió a reinar el desasosiego en Palacio. Su
Majestad seguía muy grave, y a cada vahído del monarca la causa
apostólica daba un salto en señal de vida y buena salud: así es que
cuando circulaban noticias desconsoladoras no se veía el dolo
pintado en todas las caras, como sucede en ocasiones de esta
naturaleza, aun en regios alcázares, sino que a muchos les bailaban
los ojos de contento, y otros, aunque disimulaban el gozo, no lo hacían
tanto que escondieran por completo la repugnante ansiedad de sus
corazones corrompidos.
En medio de esta barahúnda, la reina apuraba sola en el silencio
lúgubre de la alcoba regia el cáliz amargo de la situación más triste y
desairada en que pueda verse quien ha llevado una corona. Los
cortesanos huían de ella; a cada hora, a cada minuto veía disminuir e
número de los que parecían fieles a su causa, y cada suspiro del rey
moribundo producía una defección en el débil partido de la reina. E
día anterior aún tenía confianza en la guardia de Palacio; pero desde
la mañana del 18 las revelaciones de algunos servidores leales la
advirtieron de que, muerto el rey, la guardia y probablemente todas las
fuerzas del Real Sitio abrazarían el partido del infante.
Cristina se vistió en aquellos días el hábito de la Virgen del Carmen
y con la saya de lana blanca estaba más guapa aún que con manto
regio y corona de diamantes. No salía de la real alcoba sino breves
momentos, cuando el rey parecía sosegado y ella necesitaba ver a sus
hijas, o desahogar su pena en llanto amarguísimo, derramado sin
testigos en su cámara particular. Allí también habla bullicio y
movimiento, porque la servidumbre arreglaba las maletas y embaulaba
el ajuar de la reina en previsión de una fuga precipitada.
Por la noche Cristina no dormía. Sentada junto al lecho del rey
vigilaba su enfermedad, atendía a sus dolores, preparaba por sí misma
las medicinas y se las daba, dirigíale palabras de esperanza y
consuelo, no permitía que los criados hicieran cosa alguna que pudiera
hacer ella, esclava entonces de sus deberes de esposa con tanto rigo
como la compañera del último súbdito del tirano enfermo. Haciendo
entonces lo que no suelen ni saben hacer generalmente las reinas
María Cristina se puso una corona de esas que no están sujetas a los
azares de un destronamiento ni a los desaires de la abdicación.
La historia no dice lo que pasó por la mente del atormentador de
España al ver que en pago de sus violencias, de su bárbaro orgullo, de
sus vicios y de su egoísmo brutal, Dios le enviaba aquel ángel en su
última hora para que el autor de tantas agonías viera endulzada la
suya y pudiera morirse en paz, como se mueren los que no han hecho
daño a nadie. Cuando se entraba en la alcoba real, no se podía ver sin
horror el enorme cuerpo del rey en el lecho, hinchado, inmóvil
oprimido por bizmas, ungido con emplastos, que a pesar de sus
virtudes no vencían los dolores; hecho todo una miseria; conjunto
lastimoso de desdichas físicas, que así remedaban la moral más
perversa que ha informado un alma humana.
Su rostro variaba entre el verdoso de la muerte y el amoratado de la
congestión. Ligeramente incorporado sobre las almohadas, su cabeza
estaba inerte, su mirada fija y mortecina, su nariz colgaba cual s
quisiera caer saltando al suelo, y de su entreabierta boca no salía sino
un quejido constante, que en los breves momentos de sosiego era
estertor difícil. Por fin le tocaba a él también un poco de potro. Debía
de estar su conciencia bastante despierta en aquellos momentos
porque no se quejaba desesperado como si en el fondo de su alma
existiese una aprobación de aquel horrible quebrantamiento de huesos
y hervor de sangre que sufría. La cama del rey, por el estado de aque
desdichado cuerpo que desde algún tiempo vivía corrompiéndose
parecía más bien un ensayo de las descomposiciones del sepulcro
Esto solo es un elocuente elogio de la cristiana abnegación de la reina
Había en la alcoba dos o tres crucifijos e imágenes, solicitados po
la piedad de Cristina para que no permitieran que España se quedara
sin rey. Mas por el momento no había síntomas de que tan noble
anhelo fuera atendido, porque Fernando VII se moría a pedazos
Aquella masa inerte, tan solo vivificada por un gemido, no era ya rey
ni siquiera hombre. Hacia el mediodía se temió la pérdida absoluta de
las facultades mentales, y antes que esto llegara se reconoció la
necesidad de dar solución al tremendo conflicto. Una chispa de razón
quedaba en el espíritu del rey. Era urgente, indispensable, que a la
débil luz de esa chispa se resolviese el problema.
Cristina hubiera dilatado aquel momento, ganando algunas horas
para dar tiempo a que llegara su hermana la infanta doña Carlota
mujer de brío y resolución para tal caso. Desde que se agravó Su
Majestad le habían enviado correos al Puerto de Santa María
rogándola que viniese, y ya la infanta debía de estar cerca, quizás en
Madrid, quizás en camino del Real Sitio. Pero el aniquilamiento rápido
del enfermo no permitía esperar más. Entraron, pues, en la rea
cámara tres figuras horrendas: Calomarde, el de la Alcudia y el obispo
de León. La reina y el confesor del rey habían llegado poco antes y
estaban a un lado y otro de Su Majestad, Cristina casi tocando su
cabeza, el clérigo bastante cerca para hablar al oído del pobre
enfermo. Había llegado un momento en que ninguna alma cristiana
podía conservar rencor ante tanta desdicha. No era posible ver a
Fernando VII en aquel trance sin sentir ganas de perdonarle de todo
corazón.
Los tres temerosos figurones se situaron a los pies de la cama
después de besar uno tras otro con apariencia cariñosa aquella mano
lívida que había firmado tantas atrocidades. El obispo estaba grave
imponente, como quien suponiéndose con autoridad divina, se cree
por encima de todas las miserias humanas; el conde de la Alcudia
triste y acobardado por la solemnidad del momento, y Calomarde, e
hombre rastrero y vil, cuya existencia y cuyo gobierno no fueron más
que pura bajeza y engaño, arqueaba las cejas mucho más que las
arqueaba de ordinario, pestañeaba sin cesar y hacía pucheros. Crue
con los débiles, servil con los poderosos, cobarde siempre, este
hombre abominable adornaba con una lagrimilla la traición infame que
a su amo hacía en los umbrales de la muerte.
Quien presenció aquella escena terrible cuenta que la luz de la
estancia era escasa; que los tres consejeros estaban casi en la
sombra; que el rey volvía su rostro hacia la reina, vestida de hábito
blanco; que hubo un momento en que el confesor no hacía más que
morderse las uñas; que la hermosura de Cristina era la única luz de
aquel cuadro sombrío, intriga política, horrible fraude, vil escamoteo de
una corona perpetrado al borde de un sepulcro.
Cuenta también el testigo presencial de aquella escena que e
primero que habló, y habló con entereza, fue el obispo de León
Puesto de pie, parecía que llegaba al techo. Su voz hueca de
sochantre retumbaba en la cámara como voz de ultratumba. Aque
hombre, tan rígido como astuto, principió tocando una fibra del corazón
del rey: habló de las inocentes niñas de Su Majestad y de la virtuosa
reina, que según él corrían gran peligro si no pasaba la corona a las
sienes de don Carlos. Después pintó el estado del reino, en el cual
según dijo, no había un solo hombre que no fuera partidario de la
monarquía eclesiástica representada por el infante.
Fernando dio un gran suspiro y fijó sus aterrados ojos en el obispo
Este se sentó. Puesto en pie, Calomarde dijo que su emoción al ver en
aquel estado al mejor de los reyes, y al mejor de los padres, y al mejo
de los esposos, y al mejor de los hombres, no le permitía hablar con
serenidad; dijo que se veía en la durísima precisión de no ocultar a su
amado soberano la verdad de lo que ocurría; que había tanteado e
ejército, y todo el ejército se pronunciaría por don Carlos si no se
modificaba en favor de este la Pragmática sanción del 29 de marzo de
1830; que los voluntarios realistas, sin excepción de uno solo
proclamaban ya abiertamente como rey de derecho divino al mismo
señor don Carlos, y que para evitar una lucha inútil y el derramamiento
de sangre, convenía a los intereses del reino...
El infame hacía tales pucheros que no pudo continuar la frase
Sintiose que el cuerpo dolorido del rey se estremecía en su cama o
potro de angustia. Oyose luego la voz moribunda, que dijo entre dos
lamentos:
—-Cúmplase la voluntad de Dios.
El confesor silbó en su oído palabras no entendidas por los demás
y entonces la reina Cristina, sin mirar a las tres sombras, volviendo su
rostro al rey y haciendo un heroico esfuerzo para no dar a conocer su
dolor, pronunció estas palabras:
—Que España sea feliz, que en España haya paz.
El rey exhaló un gran suspiro mirando al techo, y después dijo algo
que pareció el mugido de un león enfermo. La reina tomó su pañuelo
y sin decir nada, dejando correr libremente sus lágrimas, limpió e
sudor abundante que bañaba la frente del rey.
Siguió a esto un discursillo del conde de la Alcudia confirmando e
dictamen de los otros dos apostólicos. Aquel famoso triunvirato traía la
comedia bien aprendida, y en el cuarto de don Carlos se habían
estudiado antes detenidamente los discursos, pesando cada palabra
El confesor dijo también en voz alta su opinión, asegurando bajo su
palabra que el Altísimo estaba en un todo conforme con lo expuesto
por los señores allí presentes. ¡Y se quedó tan satisfecho después de
este mensaje...!
Fernando pareció llamar a sí todas sus fuerzas. Claramente dijo:
—¿En qué forma se ha de hacer?
No vacilaron los apostólicos en la contestación, pues para todo
estaban prevenidos. Calomarde, fingiendo que se le ocurría en aque
mismo instante, propuso que el rey otorgase un codicilo-decreto
derogando la Pragmática sanción del 30, y revocando las
disposiciones testamentarias en la parte referente a la regencia y a la
sucesión de la corona.
Después de una pausa, el rey se hizo repetir la proposición de
ministro, y oída por segunda vez, Cristina volvió a limpiar el sudor que
corría por la frente de su marido. Con un gesto y la mano derecha
este mandó a los tres apostólicos consejeros que salieran de la
estancia, y se quedó solo con su esposa y con su confesor, el cua
salió también poco después. Consternados los tres escamoteadores, y
dudando del éxito de su infame comedia, no decían una palabra, y con
los ojos se comunicaban aquella duda y el temor que sentían
Calomarde y el obispo dieron algunos paseos lentamente por la
cámara, esperando que el rey les volviera a llamar, y el conde de la
Alcudia aplicó el oído a la puerta y dijo en voz baja y temerosa:
—Parece que llora Su Majestad.
—No lo creo —murmuró el obispo, acercando también su oído.
Entonces se abrió la puerta y apareció el confesor con las manos
cruzadas y el semblante compungido, imagen exacta de la hipocresía
Los cuatro cuchichearon un momento como viejas chismosas. Media
hora después, Cristina les llamó y volvieron a entrar. Fernando no
estaba ya incorporado en su cama, sino completamente tendido de
largo a largo, fijos los ojos en el techo, rígido, pesado, el resuello lento
y difícil. Sin mirar a los que habían sido sus amigos, sus aduladores
terceros de sus caprichos políticos y servidores de sus gustos con la
lealtad y sumisión del perro, Fernando VII les manifestó en pocas
palabras que aceptaba el sacrificio que se le imponía. Esforzándose
un poco, habló más para exigir secreto absoluto de lo acordado hasta
que él muriese.
Los tres apostólicos bajaron; encerráronse en un gabinete. Entre
tanto, la chusma del cuarto de don Carlos ardía en impaciencias
sobresaltadas y nerviosas, las dos infantas padecían atroz martirio. La
historia, muy descuidada en cierras cosas, no dice el número de tazas
de tila que se consumieron aquel día. El obispo, Calomarde y Alcudia
mostráronse tan reservados aquella tarde, que los carlinos se
impacientaban y aturdían cada vez más. No obstante, algunas
palabras optimistas, aunque enigmáticas, de Abarca al salir de
gabinete en que los tres se encerraron para extender el decreto
codicilo, hicieron comprender a la muchedumbre apostólica que las
cosas iban por buen camino. Finalmente, al llegar la noche, y cuando
se difundía por Palacio, corriendo y repercutiéndose de sala en sala
como un trueno, la voz de el rey ha muerto, el señor Abarca entró
triunfante en la cámara donde la corte del porvenir se hallaba reunida
En su mano alzaba el reverendo un papel, con el cual amenaza
parecía, o que lo tremolaba como estandarte o divisa de una ley