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SI EDITION
SI EDITION SI SI EDITION
Goodno
Gere
Mechanics of Mechanics of
materials materials
Mechanics of
Ninth Edition Ninth Edition
Barry J. Goodno | James M. Gere
materials
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Ninth
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Barry J. Goodno | James M. Gere

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Table I-1
Weights and Mass Densities
Weight Density g Mass Density r
Material
kN/m3 kg/m3
Aluminum alloys 26–28 2600–2800
2014-T6, 7075-T6 28 2800
6061-T6 26 2700
Brass 82–85 8400–8600
Bronze 80–86 8200–8800
Cast iron 68–72 7000–7400
Concrete
Plain 23 2300
Reinforced 24 2400
Lightweight 11–18 1100–1800
Copper 87 8900
Glass 24–28 2400–2800
Magnesium alloys 17–18 1760–1830
Monel (67% Ni, 30% Cu) 87 8800
Nickel 87 8800
Plastics
Nylon 8.6–11 880–1100
Polyethylene 9.4–14 960–1400
Rock
Granite, marble, quartz 26–28 2600–2900
Limestone, sandstone 20–28 2000–2900
Rubber 9–13 960–1300
Sand, soil, gravel 12–21 1200–2200
Steel 77.0 7850
Titanium 44 4500
Tungsten 190 1900
Water, fresh 9.81 1000

sea 10.0 1020
Wood (air dry)

Douglas fir 4.7–5.5 480–560
Oak 6.3–7.1 640–720
Southern pine 5.5–6.3 560–640
Table I-2
Moduli of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratios
Modulus of Elasticity E Shear Modulus of Elasticity G
Material Poisson’s Ratio n
GPa GPa
Aluminum alloys 70–79 26–30 0.33
2014-T6 73 28 0.33
6061-T6 70 26 0.33
7075-T6 72 27 0.33
Brass 96–110 36–41 0.34
Bronze 96–120 36–44 0.34
Cast iron 83–170 32–69 0.2–0.3
Concrete (compression) 17–31 0.1–0.2
Copper and copper alloys 110–120 40–47 0.33–0.36
Glass 48–83 19–35 0.17–0.27
Magnesium alloys 41–45 15–17 0.35
Monel (67% Ni, 30% Cu) 170 66 0.32
Nickel 210 80 0.31
Plastics
Nylon 2.1–3.4 0.4
Polyethylene 0.7–1.4 0.4
Rock (compression)
Granite, marble, quartz 40–100 0.2–0.3
Limestone, sandstone 20–70 0.2–0.3
Rubber 0.0007–0.004 0.0002–0.001 0.45–0.50
Steel 190–210 75–80 0.27–0.30
Titanium alloys 100–120 39–44 0.33
Tungsten 340–380 140–160 0.2
Wood (bending)
Douglas fir 11–13
Oak 11–12
Southern pine 11–14
Mechanics of Materials
Ninth Edition, SI
Barry J. Goodno
Georgia Institute of Technology
James M. Gere
Professor Emeritus, Stanford University
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
Mechanics of Materials, Ninth Edition, SI © 2018, 2013 Cengage Learning®
Barry J. Goodno and James M. Gere
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C o n te n ts
About the Authors ix *2.10 Stress Concentrations 211

Preface xi *2.11 Nonlinear Behavior 218
*2.12 Elastoplastic Analysis 222
Preface to the SI Edition xviii
Chapter Summary and Review 229
MindTap Online Course xix Problems 231
Symbols xxii 3. Torsion 281
Greek Alphabet xxv 3.1 Introduction 282
3.2 Torsional Deformations of a Circular
1. Tension, Compression, and Shear 1
Bar 282
1.1 Introduction to Mechanics
3.3 Circular Bars of Linearly Elastic
of Materials 2
Materials 285
1.2 Problem-Solving Approach 2
3.4 Nonuniform Torsion 298
1.3 Statics Review 3
3.5 Stresses and Strains in Pure
1.4 Normal Stress and Strain 22 Shear 310
1.5 Mechanical Properties of 3.6 Relationship Between Moduli of
Materials 31 Elasticity E and G 317
1.6 Elasticity, Plasticity, and Creep 38 3.7 Transmission of Power by Circular
1.7 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, Shafts 319
and Poisson’s Ratio 44 3.8 Statically Indeterminate Torsional
1.8 Shear Stress and Strain 50 Members 323
1.9 Allowable Stresses and Allowable 3.9 Strain Energy in Torsion and
Loads 63 Pure Shear 327
1.10 Design For Axial Loads 3.10 Torsion of Noncircular Prismatic
and Direct Shear 70 Shafts 334
Chapter Summary and Review 74 3.11 Thin-Walled Tubes 344
Problems 77 *3.12 Stress Concentrations in Torsion 352
2. Axially Loaded Members 123
Problems 360
2.1 Introduction 124
2.2 Changes in Lengths of Axially Loaded 4. Shear Forces and Bending Moments 389
Members 124 4.1 Introduction 390
2.3 Changes in Lengths under Nonuniform 4.2 Types of Beams, Loads, and
Conditions 132 Reactions 390
2.4 Statically Indeterminate 4.3 Shear Forces and Bending
Structures 146 Moments 400
2.5 Thermal Effects, Misfits, and 4.4 Relationships Among Loads, Shear
Prestrains 159 Forces, and Bending Moments 408
2.6 Stresses on Inclined Sections 178 4.5 Shear-Force and Bending-Moment
2.7 Strain Energy 190 Diagrams 412
*2.8 Impact Loading 201 Chapter Summary and Review 439
*2.9 Repeated Loading and Fatigue 209 Problems 441
v
vi Contents
5. Stresses in Beams (Basic Topics) 459 7. Analysis of Stress and Strain 657
5.1 Introduction 460 7.1 Introduction 658
5.2 Pure Bending and Nonuniform 7.2 Plane Stress 658
Bending 460 7.3 Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear
5.3 Curvature of a Beam 461 Stresses 666
5.4 Longitudinal Strains in Beams 463 7.4 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress 674
5.5 Normal Stresses in Beams 7.5 Hooke’s Law for Plane Stress 687
(Linearly Elastic Materials) 467 7.6 Triaxial Stress 693
5.6 Design of Beams for Bending 7.7 Plane Strain 697
Stresses 480 Chapter Summary and Review 712
5.7 Nonprismatic Beams 490 Problems 715
5.8 Shear Stresses in Beams
of Rectangular Cross Section 494 8. Applications of Plane Stress
5.9 Shear Stresses in Beams (Pressure Vessels, Beams, and
of Circular Cross Section 502 Combined Loadings) 739
5.10 Shear Stresses in the Webs of Beams 8.1 Introduction 740
with Flanges 505 8.2 Spherical Pressure Vessels 740
*5.11 Built-Up Beams and Shear Flow 512 8.3 Cylindrical Pressure Vessels 746
*5.12 Beams with Axial Loads 516 8.4 Maximum Stresses in Beams 753
*5.13 Stress Concentrations in Bending 523 8.5 Combined Loadings 761
Chapter Summary and Review 528 Chapter Summary and Review 786
Problems 532 Problems 788
6. Stresses in Beams (Advanced Topics) 569 9. Deflections of Beams 811

6.1 Introduction 570 9.1 Introduction 812
6.2 Composite Beams 570 9.2 Differential Equations of the
6.3 Transformed-Section Method 579 Deflection Curve 812
6.4 Doubly Symmetric Beams with 9.3 Deflections by Integration
Inclined Loads 587 of the Bending-Moment Equation 817
6.5 Bending of Unsymmetric Beams 594 9.4 Deflections by Integration of the Shear-
Force and Load Equations 828
6.6 The Shear-Center Concept 605
9.5 Method of Superposition 833
6.7 Shear Stresses in Beams of Thin-Walled
Open Cross Sections 606 9.6 Moment-Area Method 842
6.8 Shear Stresses in Wide-Flange 9.7 Nonprismatic Beams 850
Beams 609 9.8 Strain Energy of Bending 855
6.9 Shear Centers of Thin-Walled Open *9.9 Castigliano’s Theorem 860
Sections 613 *9.10 Deflections Produced by Impact 872
*6.10 Elastoplastic Bending 621 *9.11 Temperature Effects 874
Chapter Summary and Review 630 Chapter Summary and Review 878
Problems 632 Problems 880
Contents vii
10. Statically Indeterminate Beams 909 References and Historical Notes 1033
10.1 Introduction 910 APPENDIX A: Systems of Units 1042
10.2 Types of Statically Indeterminate
Beams 910 APPENDIX B: Problem Solving 1050
10.3 Analysis by the Differential Equations APPENDIX C: Mathematical Formulas 1058
of the Deflection Curve 913
APPENDIX D: Review of Centroids and Moments
10.4 Method of Superposition 919
of Inertia 1063
*10.5 Temperature Effects 933
*10.6 Longitudinal Displacements APPENDIX E: Properties of Plane Areas 1089
at the Ends of a Beam 940
APPENDIX F: Properties of Structural-Steel
Chapter Summary and Review 943 Shapes 1095
Problems 945
APPENDIX G: Properties of Structural
11. Columns 963 Timber 1101
11.1 Introduction 964
APPENDIX H: Deflections and
11.2 Buckling and Stability 964
Slopes of Beams 1102
11.3 Columns with Pinned Ends 972
11.4 Columns with Other Support APPENDIX I: Properties of Materials 1108
Conditions 981 Answers to Problems 1113
11.5 Columns with Eccentric
Axial Loads 990 Index 1150
11.6 The Secant Formula for Columns 995
11.7 Elastic and Inelastic Column
Behavior 1000
11.8 Inelastic Buckling 1002
Problems 1011
*A star attached to a section number indicates a specialized and/or advanced topic.
A B O U T T H ECAoUnTte
H On RtsS
Barry J. Goodno
Barry John Goodno is Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at
Georgia Institute of Technology. He joined the Georgia Tech faculty in 1974. He
was an Evans Scholar and received a B.S. in Civil Engineering from the University
of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, in 1970. He received M.S. and Ph.D. degrees
in Structural Engineering from Stanford University, Stanford, California, in 1971
and 1975, respectively. He holds a professional engineering license (PE) in Georgia,
is a Distinguished Member of ASCE and an Inaugural Fellow of SEI, and has
held numerous leadership positions within ASCE. He is a past president of the
ASCE Structural Engineering Institute (SEI) Board of Governors and is also a
member of the Engineering Mechanics Institute (EMI) of ASCE. He is past-chair
of the ASCE-SEI Technical Activities Division (TAD) Executive Committee, and
past-chair of the ASCE-SEI Awards Committee. In 2002, Dr. Goodno received
© Barry Goodno
the SEI Dennis L. Tewksbury Award for outstanding service to ASCE-SEI. He
received the departmental award for Leadership in Use of Technology in 2013 for
his pioneering use of lecture capture technologies in undergraduate statics and
mechanics of materials courses at Georgia Tech. He is a member of the Earth-
quake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) and has held several leadership posi-
tions within the NSF-funded Mid-America Earthquake Center (MAE), directing
the MAE Memphis Test Bed Project. Dr. Goodno has carried out research, taught
graduate courses and published extensively in the areas of earthquake engineering
and structural dynamics during his tenure at Georgia Tech.
Dr. Goodno is an active cyclist, retired soccer coach and referee, and a
retired marathon runner. Like co-author and mentor James Gere, he has com-
pleted numerous marathons including qualifying for and running the Boston
Marathon in 1987.
James M. Gere
James M. Gere (1925-2008) earned his undergraduate and master’s degree in
Civil Engineering from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1949 and 1951,
respectively. He worked as an instructor and later as a Research Associate for
Rensselaer. He was awarded one of the first NSF Fellowships, and chose to study
at Stanford. He received his Ph.D. in 1954 and was offered a faculty position
in Civil Engineering, beginning a 34-year career of engaging his students in
challenging topics in mechanics, and structural and earthquake engineering. He
served as Department Chair and Associate Dean of Engineering and in 1974
co-founded the John A. Blume Earthquake Engineering Center at Stanford. In
1980, Jim Gere also became the founding head of the Stanford Committee on
Earthquake Preparedness. That same year, he was invited as one of the first for-
eigners to study the earthquake-devastated city of Tangshan, China. Jim retired
Courtesy of James and
from Stanford in 1988 but continued to be an active and most valuable member
Janice Gere Family Trust
of the Stanford community.

ix
x About the Authors
Jim Gere was known for his outgoing manner, his cheerful personality and
wonderful smile, his athleticism, and his skill as an educator in Civil Engi-
neering. He authored nine textbooks on various engineering subjects starting
in 1972 with Mechanics of Materials, a text that was inspired by his teacher
and mentor Stephan P. Timoshenko. His other well-known textbooks, used
in engineering courses around the world, include: Theory of Elastic Stability,
co-authored with S. Timoshenko; Matrix Analysis of Framed Structures and
Matrix Algebra for Engineers, both co-authored with W. Weaver; Moment
Distribution; Earthquake Tables: Structural and Construction Design Manual,
co-authored with H. Krawinkler; and Terra Non Firma: Understanding and
Preparing for Earthquakes, co-authored with H. Shah.
In 1986 he hiked to the base camp of Mount Everest, saving the life of a
companion on the trip. James was an active runner and completed the Boston
Marathon at age 48, in a time of 3:13. James Gere will be long remembered by
all who knew him as a considerate and loving man whose upbeat good humor
made aspects of daily life or work easier to bear.
P R E FAC E
Mechanics of Materials is a basic engineering subject that, along with statics,

must be understood by anyone concerned with the strength and physical per-
formance of structures, whether those structures are man-made or natural. At
the college level, statics is usually taught during the sophomore or junior year
and is a prerequisite for the follow-on course in Mechanics of Materials. Both
courses are required for most students majoring in mechanical, structural, civil,
biomedical, petroleum, nuclear, aeronautical, and aerospace engineering. In
addition, many students from such diverse fields as materials science, industrial
engineering, architecture, and agricultural engineering also find it useful to study
mechanics of materials.
Mechanics of Materials
In many university engineering programs today, both statics and mechanics of
materials are taught in large sections of students from the many engineering
disciplines. Instructors for the various parallel sections must cover the same
material, and all of the major topics must be presented so that students are
well prepared for the more advanced courses required by their specific degree
programs. An essential prerequisite for success in a first course in mechanics of
materials is a strong foundation in statics, which includes not only understanding
fundamental concepts but also proficiency in applying the laws of static equi-
librium to solutions of both two- and three-dimensional problems. This ninth
edition begins with an updated section on statics in which the laws of equilib-
rium and an expanded list of boundary (or support) conditions are reviewed, as
well as types of applied forces and internal stress resultants, all based upon and
derived from a properly drawn free-body diagram. Numerous examples and end-
of-chapter problems are included to help students review the analysis of plane
and space trusses, shafts in torsion, beams and plane and space frames, and to
reinforce basic concepts learned in the prerequisite course.
Many instructors like to present the basic theory of say, beam bending, and
then use real world examples to motivate student interest in the subject of beam
flexure, beam design, etc. In many cases, structures on campus offer easy access to
beams, frames, and bolted connections that can be dissected in lecture or in home-
work problems, to find reactions at supports, forces and moments in members
and stresses in connections. In addition, study of causes of failures in structures
and components also offers the opportunity for students to begin the process of
learning from actual designs and past engineering mistakes. A number of the new
example problems and also the new and revised end-of-chapter problems in this
ninth edition are based upon actual components or structures and are accompa-
nied by photographs so that the student can see the real world problem alongside
the simplified mechanics model and free-body diagrams used in its analysis.
An increasing number of universities are using rich media lecture (and/
or classroom) capture software (such as Panopto and Tegrity) in their large
undergraduate courses in mathematics, physics, and engineering. The many
new photos and enhanced graphics in the ninth edition are designed to support
this enhanced lecture mode.
xi
xii Preface
Key Features
The main topics covered in this book are the analysis and design of structural
members subjected to tension, compression, torsion, and bending, including
the fundamental concepts mentioned above. Other important topics are the
transformations of stress and strain, combined loadings and combined stress,
deflections of beams, and stability of columns. Some additional specialized top-
ics include the following: stress concentrations, dynamic and impact loadings,
non-prismatic members, shear centers, bending of beams of two materials (or
composite beams), bending of unsymmetric beams, maximum stresses in beams,
energy based approaches for computing deflections of beams, and statically
indeterminate beams.
Each chapter begins with a Chapter Overview highlighting the major top-
ics covered in that chapter and closes with a Chapter Summary and Review in
which the key points as well as major mathematical formulas in the chapter
are listed for quick review. Each chapter also opens with a photograph of
a component or structure that illustrates the key concepts discussed in the
chapter.
New Features
Some of the notable features of this ninth edition, which have been added as
new or updated material to meet the needs of a modern course in mechanics of
materials, are:
• Problem-Solving Approach—All examples in the text are presented in a
new Four-Step Problem-Solving Approach which is patterned after that
presented by R. Serway and J. Jewett in Principles of Physics, 5e, Cengage
Learning, 2013. This new structured format helps students refine their
problem-solving skills and improve their understanding of the main con-
cepts illustrated in the example.
• Statics Review—The Statics Review section has been enhanced in Chapter
1. Section 1.2 includes four new example problems which illustrate calcu-
lation of support reactions and internal stress resultants for truss, beam,
circular shaft and plane frame structures. Thirty-four end-of-chapter prob-
lems on statics provide students with two- and three-dimensional structures
to be used as practice, review, and homework assignment problems of
varying difficulty.
• Expanded Chapter Overview and Chapter Summary and Review sections—
The Chapter Overview and Chapter Summary sections have been expanded
to include key equations and figures presented in each chapter. These sum-
mary sections serve as a convenient review for students of key topics and
equations presented in each chapter.
• Continued emphasis on underlying fundamental concepts such as equilib-
rium, constitutive, and strain-displacement/ compatibility equations in
problem solutions. Example problem and end-of-chapter problem solu-
tions have been updated to emphasize an orderly process of explicitly writ-
ing out the equilibrium, constitutive and strain-displacement/ compatibility
equations before attempting a solution.
Preface xiii
• Expanded topic coverage—The following topics have been updated or

have received expanded coverage: stress concentrations in axially loads
bars (Sec. 2.10); torsion of noncircular shafts (Sec. 3.10); stress concen-
trations in bending (Sec. 5.13); transformed section analysis for composite
beams (Sec. 6.3); and generalized flexure formula for unsymmetric beams
(Sec. 6.5).
• Many new example and end-of-chapter problems—More than forty new
example problems have been added to the ninth edition. In addition, there
are more than 400 new and revised end-of-chapter problems out of the
1440 problems presented in the ninth edition text. The end-of-chapter
problems are now grouped as Introductory or Representative and are
arranged in order of increasing difficulty.
• Centroids and Moments of Inertia review has moved to Appendix D to free
up space for more examples and problems in earlier chapters.
Importance of Example Problems

• Examples are presented throughout the book to illustrate the theoretical
concepts and show how those concepts may be used in practical
situations. All examples are presented in the Four-Step Problem-Solving
Approach format so that the basic concepts as well as the key steps in
setting up and solving each problem are clearly understood. New pho-
tographs have been added showing actual engineering structures or
components to reinforce the tie between theory and application. Each
example begins with a clear statement of the problem and then presents
a simplified analytical model and the associated free-body diagrams to
aid students in understanding and applying the relevant theory in engi-
neering analysis of the system. In most cases, the examples are worked
out in symbolic terms so as to better illustrate the ideas, and then numeric
values of key parameters are substituted in the final part of the analysis
step. In selected examples throughout the text, graphical display of results
(e.g., stresses in beams) has been added to enhance the student’s under-
standing of the problem results.
Example 1-1 In many cases, the problem

involves the analysis of a
real physical structure, such
Figure 1-6 Figure 1-7 as this truss structure (Fig.
Free-body diagram of truss model 1-6) representing part of
y
the fuselage of a model air
P plane. Begin by sketching
C
the portion of the structure
2P
θC = 80° of interest showing
a members, supports,
b
θB = 40° dimensions and loadings.

θA = 60° This Conceptualization
Ax A B
D x step in the analysis often
Ay By leads to a free-body
c/2 c/2 diagram (Fig. 1-7).
xiv Preface
Solution:
The solution involves the following steps:
The next step is to simplify 1. Conceptualize [hypothesize, sketch]: First sketch a free-body dia-
the problem, list known gram of the entire truss model (Figure 1-7). Only known applied
data and identify all
forces at C and unknown reaction forces at A and B are shown and
unknowns, and make
necessary assumptions to then used in an equilibrium analysis to find the reactions.
create a suitable model 2. Categorize [simplify, classify]: Overall equilibrium requires that the
for analysis. This is the
Categorize step. force components in x and y directions and the moment about the z
axis must sum to zero; this leads to reaction force components Ax,
Ay, and By. The truss is statically determinate (unknowns: m 1 r 5 5
Write the governing 1 3 5 8, knowns: 2j 5 8) so all member forces can be obtained using
equations, then use the method of joints. . . .
appropriate mathematical
3. Analyze [evaluate; select relevant equations, carry out mathematical
and computational
techniques to solve the solution]: First find the lengths of members AC and BC, which are
equations and obtain needed to compute distances to lines of action of forces.
results, either in the form
of mathematical formulas Law of sines to find member lengths a and b: Use known angles u A, u B,
or numerical values. The and uC and c 5 3 m to find lengths a and b:
Analysis step leads to
support reaction and sin(u B ) sin(408 )
b 5c 5 (3 m) 5 1.958 m,
member forces in the truss. sin(uC ) sin(808 )
sin(u A ) sin(608 )
a 5c 5 (3 m) 5 2.638 m
sin(uC ) sin(808 )
Check that computed lengths a and b give length c by using the law
of cosines:
c 5 (1.958 m)2 1 (2.638 m) 2 2 2(1.958 m)(2.638 m) cos(808 ) 5 3 m

List the major steps in your
analysis procedure so that it 4. Finalize [conclude; examine answer—does it make sense? Are units
is easy to review or check at
a later time. correct? How does it compare to similar problem solutions?]: There
are 2 j 5 8 equilibrium equations for the simple plane truss consid-
ered above and, using the method of joints, these are obtained by
applying SFx 5 0 and SFy 5 0 at each joint in succession. A com-
puter solution of these simultaneous equations leads to the three
reaction forces and five member forces. The method of sections is an
efficient way to find selected member forces.
List the major steps in the Finalize step,

review the solution to make sure that it is
presented in a clear fashion so that it can
be easily reviewed and checked by others.
Are the expressions and numerical values
obtained reasonable? Do they agree with
your initial expectations?
Preface xv
Problems
In all mechanics courses, solving problems is an important part of the learning
process. This textbook offers more than 1440 problems, many with multiple
parts, for homework assignments and classroom discussions. The problems are
placed at the end of each chapter so that they are easy to find and don’t break
up the presentation of the main subject matter. Also, problems are generally
arranged in order of increasing difficulty, thus alerting students to the time nec-
essary for solution. Answers to all problems are listed near the back of the book.
Considerable effort has been spent in checking and proofreading the text so
as to eliminate errors. If you happen to find one, no matter how trivial, please
notify me by e-mail (bgoodno@ce.gatech.edu). We will correct any errors in the
next printing of the book.
Units
The International System of Units (SI) is used in all examples and problems.
Tables containing properties of structural-steel shapes in SI units may be found
in Appendix F so that solution of beam analysis and design examples and
end-of-chapter problems can be carried out in SI units.
Supplements
Instructor Resources
An Instructor’s Solutions Manual is available online on the Instructor's
Resource Center for the book and includes solutions to all problems from
this edition with Mathcad solutions available for some problems. The Manual
includes rotated stress elements for problems as well as an increased number
of free body diagrams. The Solutions Manual is accessible to instructors on
http://login.cengage.com. The Instructor Resource Center also contains a full
set of Lecture Note PowerPoints.
Student Resources
FE Exam Review Problems has been updated and now appears online. This
supplement contains 106 FE-type review problems and solutions, which cover
all of the major topics presented in the text and are representative of those likely
to appear on an FE exam. Each of the problems is presented in the FE Exam
format and is intended to serve as a useful guide to the student in preparing for
this important examination.
Many students take the Fundamentals of Engineering Examination upon
graduation, the first step on their path to registration as a Professional Engi-
neer. Most of these problems are in SI units which is the system of units used
on the FE Exam itself, and require use of an engineering calculator to carry out
the solution. The student must select from four available answers, only one of
which is the correct answer. Go to http://www.cengagebrain.com to find the
FE Exam Review Problems and the resources below, which are available on
the student website for this book:
• Answers to the FE Exam Review Problems
• Detailed Solutions for Each Problem
xvi Preface
S.P. Timoshenko (1878–1972)

and J.M. Gere (1925–2008)
Many readers of this book will recognize the name of Stephen P. Timoshenko—
probably the most famous name in the field of applied mechanics. A brief
biography of Timoshenko appears in the first reference in the References and
Historical Notes section. Timoshenko is generally recognized as the world’s most
outstanding pioneer in applied mechanics. He contributed many new ideas and
concepts and became famous for both his scholarship and his teaching. Through
his numerous textbooks he made a profound change in the teaching of mechan-
ics not only in this country but wherever mechanics is taught. Timoshenko was
both teacher and mentor to James Gere and provided the motivation for the
first edition of this text, authored by James M. Gere and published in 1972.
The second and each subsequent edition of this book were written by James
Gere over the course of his long and distinguished tenure as author, educator,
and researcher at Stanford University. James Gere started as a doctoral student
at Stanford in 1952 and retired from Stanford as a professor in 1988 having
authored this and eight other well-known and respected text books on mechan-
ics, and structural and earthquake engineering. He remained active at Stanford
as Professor Emeritus until his death in January of 2008.
Acknowledgments
To acknowledge everyone who contributed to this book in some manner is clearly
impossible, but I owe a major debt to my former Stanford teachers, especially my
mentor and friend, and co-author James M. Gere.
I am grateful to my many colleagues teaching Mechanics of Materials at
various institutions throughout the world who have provided feedback and con-
structive criticism about the text; for all those anonymous reviews, my thanks.
With each new edition, their advice has resulted in significant improvements
in both content and pedagogy.
My appreciation and thanks also go to the reviewers who provided specific
comments for this ninth edition:
Erian Armanios, University of Texas at Arlington
Aaron S. Budge, Minnesota State University, Mankato
Virginia Ferguson, University of Colorado, Boulder
James Giancaspro, University of Miami
Paul Heyliger, Colorado State University
Eric Kasper, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo
Preface xvii
Richard Kunz, Mercer University
David Lattanzi, George Mason University
Gustavo Molina, Georgia Southern University
Suzannah Sandrik, University of Wisconsin—Madison
Morteza A.M. Torkamani, University of Pittsburgh
I wish to also acknowledge my Structural Engineering and Mechanics

colleagues at the Georgia Institute of Technology, many of whom provided
valuable advice on various aspects of the revisions and additions leading to
the current edition. It is a privilege to work with all of these educators and to
learn from them in almost daily interactions and discussions about structural
engineering and mechanics in the context of research and higher education.
I wish to extend my thanks to my many current and former students who have
helped to shape this text in its various editions. Finally, I would like to acknowl-
edge the excellent work of Edwin Lim who suggested new problems and also
carefully checked the solutions of many of the new examples and end of chapter
problems.
I wish to acknowledge and thank the Global Engineering team at Cengage
Learning for their dedication to this new book:
Timothy Anderson, Product Director; Mona Zeftel, Senior Content Developer;

D. Jean Buttrom, Content Project Manager; Kristin Stine, Marketing Manager;
Elizabeth Brown and Brittany Burden, Learning Solutions Specialists; Ashley
Kaupert, Associate Media Content Developer; Teresa Versaggi and Alexander
Sham, Product Assistants; and Rose Kernan of RPK Editorial Services, Inc.
They have skillfully guided every aspect of this text’s development and
production to successful completion.
I am deeply appreciative of the patience and encouragement provided by
my family, especially my wife, Lana, throughout this project.
Finally, I am very pleased to continue this endeavor begun so many years
ago by my mentor and friend, Jim Gere. This ninth edition text has now reached
its 45th year of publication. I am committed to its continued excellence and wel-
come all comments and suggestions. Please feel free to provide me with your
critical input at bgoodno@ce.gatech.edu.
Barry J. Goodno
Atlanta, Georgia
P reface t o the S I E diti o n
This edition of Mechanics of Materials has been adapted to incorporate the

International System of Units (Le Système International d'Unités or SI) through-
out the book.
Le Système International d'Unités

SI units are primarily the units of the MKS (meter−kilogram−second) system.
However, CGS (centimeter−gram−second) units are often accepted as SI units,
especially in textbooks.
Using SI Units in this Book

In this book, we have used both MKS and CGS units. USCS (U.S. Customary
Units) or FPS (foot-pound-second) units used in the US Edition of the book
have been converted to SI units throughout the text and problems. However, in
case of data sourced from handbooks, government standards, and product man-
uals, it is not only extremely difficult to convert all values to SI, it also encroaches
upon the intellectual property of the source. Some data in figures, tables, and
references, therefore, may remain in FPS units.
To solve problems that require the use of sourced data, the sourced values
can be converted from FPS units to SI units just before they are to be used in a
calculation. To obtain standardized quantities and manufacturers’ data in SI
units, readers may contact the appropriate government agencies or authorities
in their regions.
Instructor Resources
The Instructors’ Solution Manual in SI units is available online through the
book website at http://login.cengage.com. A digital version of the ISM, Lecture
Note PowerPoint slides for the SI text, as well as other resources are available
for instructors registering on the book website.
Feedback from users of this SI Edition will be greatly appreciated and will
help us improve subsequent editions.
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S y mb o ls
A area
Af , Aw area of flange; area of web
a, b, c dimensions, distances
C centroid, compressive force, constant of integration
c distance from neutral axis to outer surface of a beam
D diameter
d diameter, dimension, distance
E modulus of elasticity
E r , Et reduced modulus of elasticity; tangent modulus of elasticity
e eccentricity, dimension, distance, unit volume change
(dilatation)
F force
f shear flow, shape factor for plastic bending, flexibility,
frequency (Hz)
fT torsional flexibility of a bar
G modulus of elasticity in shear
g acceleration of gravity
H height, distance, horizontal force or reaction, horsepower
h height, dimensions
I moment of inertia (or second moment) of a plane area
I x, I y, I z moments of inertia with respect to x, y, and z axes
I x1, I y1 moments of inertia with respect to x1 and y1 axes (rotated axes)
I xy product of inertia with respect to xy axes
I x1y1 product of inertia with respect to x1 y1 axes (rotated axes)
IP polar moment of inertia
I1, I 2 principal moments of inertia
J torsion constant
K stress-concentration factor, bulk modulus of elasticity, effective
length factor for a column
k spring constant, stiffness, symbol for P /EI
kT torsional stiffness of a bar
L length, distance
LE effective length of a column
ln, log natural logarithm (base e); common logarithm (base 10)
M bending moment, couple, mass
M P, MY plastic moment for a beam; yield moment for a beam
m moment per unit length, mass per unit length
N axial force
xxii
Symbols xxiii
n factor of safety, integer, revolutions per minute (rpm)

O origin of coordinates
O9 center of curvature
P force, concentrated load, power
Pallow allowable load (or working load)
Pcr critical load for a column
PP plastic load for a structure
Pr, Pt reduced-modulus load for a column; tangent-modulus load
for a column
PY yield load for a structure
p pressure (force per unit area)
Q force, concentrated load, first moment of a plane area
q intensity of distributed load (force per unit distance)
R reaction, radius
r radius, radius of gyration ( r 5 I /A )
S section modulus of the cross section of a beam, shear center
s distance, distance along a curve
T tensile force, twisting couple or torque, temperature
TP, TY plastic torque; yield torque
t thickness, time, intensity of torque (torque per unit distance)
tf , t w thickness of flange; thickness of web
U strain energy
u strain-energy density (strain energy per unit volume)
ur , ut modulus of resistance; modulus of toughness
V shear force, volume, vertical force or reaction
v deflection of a beam, velocity
v9, v 0, etc. dv/dx, d 2 v /dx 2 , etc.
W force, weight, work
w load per unit of area (force per unit area)
x, y, z rectangular axes (origin at point O)
xc , yc , zc rectangular axes (origin at centroid C)
x, y, z coordinates of centroid
Z plastic modulus of the cross section of a beam
a angle, coefficient of thermal expansion, nondimensional ratio
b angle, nondimensional ratio, spring constant, stiffness
bR rotational stiffness of a spring
g shear strain, weight density (weight per unit volume)
g xy , g yz , g zx shear strains in xy, yz, and zx planes
g x1y1 shear strain with respect to x1 y1 axes (rotated axes)
gu shear strain for inclined axes
d deflection of a beam, displacement, elongation of a bar
or spring
xxiv Symbols
ΔT temperature differential
d P , dY plastic displacement; yield displacement
« normal strain
« x, « y, « z normal strains in x, y, and z directions
« x1, « y1 normal strains in x1 and y1 directions (rotated axes)
«u normal strain for inclined axes
«1, « 2 , « 3 principal normal strains
«9 lateral strain in uniaxial stress
«T thermal strain
«Y yield strain
u angle, angle of rotation of beam axis, rate of twist of a bar
in torsion (angle of twist per unit length)
up angle to a principal plane or to a principal axis
us angle to a plane of maximum shear stress
k curvature (k 5 1/r )
l distance, curvature shortening
n Poisson’s ratio
r radius, radius of curvature ( r 5 1/k ), radial distance in polar
coordinates, mass density (mass per unit volume)
s normal stress
s x, s y, s z normal stresses on planes perpendicular to x, y, and z axes
s x1, s y1 normal stresses on planes perpendicular to x1 y1 axes (rotated
axes)
su normal stress on an inclined plane
s 1, s 2, s 3 principal normal stresses
s allow allowable stress (or working stress)
s cr critical stress for a column (s cr 5 Pcr /A)
s pl proportional-limit stress
sr residual stress
sT thermal stress
sU , sY ultimate stress; yield stress
t shear stress
t xy , t yz, t zx shear stresses on planes perpendicular to the x, y, and z axes
and acting parallel to the y, z, and x axes
t x1y1 shear stress on a plane perpendicular to the x1 axis and acting
parallel to the y1 axis (rotated axes)
tu shear stress on an inclined plane
t allow allowable stress (or working stress) in shear
t U , tY ultimate stress in shear; yield stress in shear
f angle, angle of twist of a bar in torsion
c angle, angle of rotation
v angular velocity, angular frequency (v 5 2p f )
Symbols xxv
GREEK ALPHABET
A a Alpha N n Nu
B b Beta J j Xi
Γ g Gamma O o Omicron
D d Delta Π p Pi
E « Epsilon P r Rho
Z z Zeta S s Sigma
H h Eta T t Tau
Θ u Theta Y y Upsilon
I ι Iota F f Phi
K k Kappa X x Chi
Λ l Lambda Ψ c Psi
M m Mu Ω v Omega
CHAPTER
Tension, Compression, and Shear 1
Jan Jirous/Shutterstock.com
This telecommunications tower is an assemblage of many members that act primarily in tension or compression.
Chapter Objectives
• Define mechanics of materials, which examines the stresses, • Investigate changes in lateral dimensions and volume of a
strains, and displacements in structures made of various bar, which depend upon Poisson’s ratio ( n ) for the material of
materials acted on by a variety of different loads. the bar.
• Study normal stress (s ) and normal strain (« ) in materials used • Study normal, shear, and bearing stresses in simple bolted
for structural applications. connections between members.
• Identify key properties of various materials, such as the modulus • Use factors of safety to establish allowable values
of elasticity (E) and yield (s y ) and ultimate (s u ) stresses, from of stresses.
plots of stress (s ) versus strain (« ). • Introduce basic concepts of design: the iterative process
• Plot shear stress (t ) versus shear strain (g ) and identify the by which the appropriate size of structural members is
shearing modulus of elasticity (G). determined to meet a variety of both strength and stiffness
• Study Hooke’s Law for normal stress and strain (s 5 E « ) requirements.
and also for shear stress and strain (t 5 Gg ).
Chapter Outline
1.1 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials 2 1.8 Shear Stress and Strain 50
1.2 Problem-Solving Approach 2 1.9 Allowable Stresses and Allowable Loads 63
1.3 Statics Review 3 1.10 Design For Axial Loads and Direct Shear 70
1.4 Normal Stress and Strain 22 Chapter Summary and Review 74
1.5 Mechanical Properties of Materials 31 Problems 77
1.6 Elasticity, Plasticity, and Creep 38
1.7 Linear Elasticity, Hooke’s Law, and Poisson’s Ratio 44 1
2 Chapter 1 Tension, Compression, and Shear
1.1 Introduction to Mechanics of Materials

Mechanics of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the
behavior of solid bodies subjected to various types of loading. Other names for
this field of study are strength of materials and mechanics of deformable bodies.
The solid bodies considered in this book include bars with axial loads, shafts in
torsion, beams in bending, and columns in compression.
The principal objective of mechanics of materials is to determine the stresses,
strains, and displacements in structures and their components due to the loads
acting on them. An understanding of mechanical behavior is essential for the
safe design of all types of structures, whether airplanes and antennas, buildings
and bridges, machines and motors, or ships and spacecraft. That is why mechan-
ics of materials is a basic subject in so many engineering fields. Most problems in
mechanics of materials begin with an examination of the external and internal
forces acting on a stable deformable body. First the loads acting on the body are
defined, along with its support conditions, then reaction forces at supports and
internal forces in its members or elements are determined using the basic laws
of static equilibrium (provided that the body is statically determinate).
In mechanics of materials you study the stresses and strains inside real bod-
ies, that is, bodies of finite dimensions that deform under loads. To determine the
stresses and strains, use the physical properties of the materials as well as numer-
ous theoretical laws and concepts. Mechanics of materials provides additional
essential information, based on the deformations of the body, to solve statically
indeterminate problems (not possible using the laws of static equilibrium alone).
Theoretical analyses and experimental results have equally important roles
in mechanics of materials. Theories are used to derive formulas and equations
for predicting mechanical behavior but these expressions cannot be used in
practical design unless the physical properties of the materials are known.
Such properties are available only after careful experiments have been carried
out in the laboratory. Furthermore, not all practical problems are amenable
to theoretical analysis alone, and in such cases physical testing is a necessity.
The historical development of mechanics of materials is a fascinating blend
of both theory and experiment—theory has pointed the way to useful results in
some instances, and experiment has done so in others. Such famous persons as
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) performed exper-
iments to determine the strength of wires, bars, and beams, although they did
not develop adequate theories (by today’s standards) to explain their test results.
By contrast, the famous mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) developed
the mathematical theory of columns and calculated the critical load of a column
in 1744, long before any experimental evidence existed to show the significance
of his results. Without appropriate tests to back up his theories, Euler’s results
remained unused for over a hundred years, although today they are the basis for
the design and analysis of most columns (see Refs. 1-1, 1-2, and 1-3).
1.2 Problem-Solving Approach*

The study of mechanics divides naturally into two parts: first, understanding
the general concepts and principles, and second, applying those concepts and
principles to physical situations. You can gain an understanding of the general
*The four step problem-solving approach presented here is patterned after that presented
by R. Serway and J. Jewett in Principles of Physics, 5e, Cengage Learning, 2013.
Section 1.3 Statics Review 3
concepts by studying the discussions and derivations presented in this book. You
can gain skill only by solving problems on your own. Of course, these two aspects
of mechanics are closely related, and many experts in mechanics will argue that
you do not really understand the concepts if you cannot apply them. It is easy to
recite the principles, but applying them to real situations requires an in-depth
understanding. Problem solving gives meaning to the concepts and also provides
an opportunity to gain experience and develop judgment.
A major objective of this text is to assist you in developing a structured solu-
tion process for problems in statics and mechanics of materials. This process
is referred to as a problem-solving approach (PSA) and is used in all example
problems in the text. The PSA involves the following four steps:
1. Conceptualize [hypothesize, sketch]: List all relevant data and draw a sketch
showing all applied forces, support/boundary conditions, and interactions
between adjacent bodies. Development and refinement of the free-body
diagram is an essential part of this step.
2. Categorize [simplify, classify]: Identify the unknowns in the problem and
make any necessary assumptions to simplify the problem and streamline
the solution process.
3. Analyze [evaluate; select relevant equations, carry out mathematical
solution]: Apply appropriate theories, set up the necessary equations for the
chosen mathematical model, and then solve for the unknowns.
4. Finalize [conclude; examine answer—Does it make sense? Are units correct?
How does it compare to similar problem solutions?]: Study the answers, com-
pare them to those for similar problems you have solved in the past, and
test the robustness of the solution by varying key parameters to see how
the results change (perhaps even plot the main result as a function of that
parameter to investigate the sensitivity of the answer).
You are encouraged to study the problem-solving approach presented in
the example problems and then apply it to homework and in-class labora-
tory problems. This structured systematic approach also will be useful during
examinations. See Appendix B.2 for further discussion of the Problem Solving
Approach summarized above.
All problems appear at the ends of the chapters, with the problem numbers
and subheadings identifying the sections to which they belong.
In this book, final numerical results are usually presented with three sig-
nificant digits when a number begins with the digits 2 through 9, and with four
significant digits when a number begins with the digit 1. Intermediate values
are often recorded with additional digits to avoid losing numerical accuracy
due to rounding of numbers.
1.3 Statics Review

In your prerequisite course on statics, you studied the equilibrium of rigid bodies
acted upon by a variety of different forces and supported or restrained in such a
way that the body was stable and at rest. As a result, a properly restrained body
could not undergo rigid-body motion due to the application of static forces. You
drew free-body diagrams of the entire body, or of key parts of the body, and then
applied the equations of equilibrium to find external reaction forces and moments
or internal forces and moments at critical points. In this section, the basic static
equilibrium equations are reviewed and then applied to the solution of example
structures (both two and three-dimensional) using both scalar and vector opera-
tions (both acceleration and velocity of the body are assumed to be zero). Most
problems in mechanics of materials require a static analysis as the first step, so
all forces acting on the system and causing its deformation are known. Once all
external and internal forces of interest have been found, you can proceed with
the evaluation of stresses, strains, and deformations of bars, shafts, beams, and
columns as described in subsequent chapters.
Equilibrium Equations
The resultant force R and resultant moment M of all forces and moments acting
on either a rigid or deformable body in equilibrium are both zero. The sum of
the moments may be taken about any arbitrary point. The resulting equilibrium
equations can be expressed in vector form as:
R 5 SF 5 0 (1-1)
M 5 SM 5 S( r 3 F ) 5 0 (1-2)
where F is one of a number of vectors of forces acting on the body and r is a

position vector from the point at which moments are taken to a point along the
line of application of any force F. It is often convenient to write the equilibrium
equations in scalar form using a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system, either
in two dimensions (x, y) or three dimensions (x, y, z) as
SFx 5 0 SFy 5 0 SM z 5 0 (1-3)
Equation (1-3) can be used for two-dimensional or planar problems, but in three
dimensions, three force and three moment equations are required:
SFx 5 0 SFy 5 0 SFz 5 0 (1-4)
SM x 5 0 SM y 5 0 SM z 5 0 (1-5)
If the number of unknown forces is equal to the number of independent equilib-

rium equations, these equations are sufficient to solve for all unknown reaction
or internal forces in the body, and the problem is referred to as statically determi-
nate (provided that the body is stable). If the body or structure is constrained by
additional (or redundant) supports, it is statically indeterminate, and a solution
is not possible using the laws of static equilibrium alone.
Applied Forces
External loads applied to a body or structure may be either concentrated
or distributed forces or moments. For example, force FB (with units of
newtons, N) in Fig. 1-1 is a point or concentrated load and is assumed to
act at point B on the body, while moment MA is a concentrated moment
or couple (with units of N · m) acting at point A. Distributed forces may
act along or normal to a member and may have constant intensity, such as
line load q1 normal to member BC (Fig. 1-1) or line load q2 acting in the 2y
direction on inclined member DF; both q1 and q2 have units of force intensity
(N/m). Distributed loads also may have a linear (or other) variation with some
peak intensity q0 (as on member ED in Fig. 1-1). Surface pressures p (with
units of Pa), such as wind acting on a sign (Fig. 1-2), act over a designated
Figure 1-1
Plane frame structure
F
q2
4
q0 3
e
C q1
E D
c d b
4 B
y 3
a
FB
MA
x
A
region of a body. Finally, a body force w (with units of force per unit volume,
N/m 3 ), such as the distributed self-weight of the sign or post in Fig. 1-2,
acts throughout the volume of the body and can be replaced by the compo-
nent weight W acting at the center of gravity (c.g.) of the sign (Ws ) or post
(W p ). In fact, any distributed loading (line, surface, or body force) can be
replaced by a statically equivalent force at the center of gravity (or center of
pressure for wind) of the distributed loading when overall static equilibrium
of the structure is evaluated using Eqs. (1-1) to (1-5).
Free-Body Diagrams
A free-body diagram (FBD) is an essential part of a static analysis of a rigid or
deformable body. All forces acting on the body, or component part of the body,
must be displayed on the FBD if a correct equilibrium solution is to be obtained.
This includes applied forces and moments, reaction forces and moments, and any
Figure 1-2
connection forces between individual components. For example, an overall FBD Wind on sign
of the plane frame in Fig. 1-1 is shown in Fig. 1-3a; all applied and reaction forces y
are shown on this FBD and statically equivalent concentrated loads are displayed
for all distributed loads. Statically equivalent forces Fq 0, Fq1, and Fq 2, each acting p
at the c.g. of the corresponding distributed loading, are used in the equilibrium Ws
equation solution to represent distributed loads q0 , q1, and q2 , respectively.
Next, the plane frame has been disassembled in Fig. 1-3b, so that sepa- P
rate FBDs can be drawn for each part of the frame, thereby exposing pin-
Wp
connection forces at D ( Dx , Dy ) . Both FBDs must show all applied forces as
well as reaction forces Ax and Ay at pin-support joint A and Fx and Fy at H
pin-support joint F. The forces transmitted between frame elements EDC and
DF at pin connection D must be determined if the proper interaction of these
two elements is to be accounted for in the static analysis. z x
Figure 1-3
(a) Overall FBD of plane frame F
structure from Fig. 1-1, and
Fx
(b) Separate free-body diagrams Fq2
of part ABCDE and part DF Fy
of the plane frame structure in
Fig. 1-1
Fq0 4
q0 3
e
C q1
E D Fq1
c d
b
4
B
3
y
a
FB
MA
x A
Ax
Ay
(a)
Fq 2 Fx
F
q2
Fy
Fq0 D Dx
q0
Dy Resultant D
Dy Dx
C q1
E D Fq1
4 B
3
y
FB
MA
x A Ax
Ay Resultant A
(b)
The FBDs presented in Figs. 1-3a and 1-3b are essential parts of this solu-
tion process. A statics sign convention is usually employed in the solution for
support reactions; forces acting in the positive directions of the coordinate

axes are assumed positive, and the right-hand rule is used for moment vectors.
Reactive Forces and Support Conditions

Proper restraint of the body or structure is essential if the equilibrium equations
are to be satisfied. A sufficient number and arrangement of supports must be
present to prevent rigid-body motion under the action of static forces. A reaction
force at a support is represented by a single arrow with a slash drawn through it
(see Fig. 1-3) while a moment restraint at a support is shown as a double-headed
or curved arrow with a slash. Reaction forces and moments usually result from
the action of applied forces of the types described above (i.e., concentrated,
distributed, surface, and body forces).
A variety of different support conditions may be assumed depending
on whether the problem is 2D or 3D. Supports A and F in the 2D plane
frame structure shown in Fig. 1-1 and Fig. 1-3 are pin supports, while the
base of the 3D sign structure in Fig. 1-2 may be considered to be a fixed or
clamped support. Some of the most commonly used idealizations for 2D
and 3D supports, as well as interconnections between members or elements
of a structure, are illustrated in Table 1-1. The restraining or transmitted
forces and moments associated with each type of support or connection are
displayed in the third column of the table (these are not FBDs, however).
The reactions forces and moments for the 3D sign structure in Fig. 1-2 are
shown on the FBD in F ig. 1-4a; only reactions Ry , Rz , and M x are nonzero
because the sign structure and wind loading are symmetric with respect to
the y-z plane. If the sign is eccentric to the post (Fig. 1-4b), only reaction
Rx is zero for the case of wind loading in the 2z direction. (See Problems
1.8-19 and 1.9-17 at the end of Chapter 1 for a more detailed examination of
the reaction forces due to wind pressure acting on several sign structures
similar to that shown in Fig. 1-2; forces and stresses in the base plate bolts
are also computed).
Figure 1-4
y
(a) FBD of symmetric sign
y structure, and (b) FBD of
eccentric sign structure
Ws
Ws
P
P
Wp Wp
H
Mx
Mx
Rz Rz
Mz Ry x
z x z
Ry
My
(a) (b)
Table 1-1 Display of restraint

Modeling reaction Type of support Simplified sketch of support forces and moments,
forces and support or connection or connection or connection forces
conditions in 2D or 3D
static analysis 1. Roller Support: A single reaction force R is developed and is normal to the rolling surface; force R opposes
motion into or away from the rolling surface. The rolling surface may be horizontal, vertical, or inclined at some
angle u. If friction is present, then include a force F opposing the movement of the support and tangential to the
rolling surface. In 3D, the roller moves in the x-z plane and reaction Ry is normal to that plane.
(a) Two-dimensional roller
The Earthquake Engineering
support (friction force F 5 0

for smooth rolling surface)
y
(1.1) (1.2) (1.3)
Online Archive
Horizontal roller support [(1.1),

(1.2)]; or alternate representation F
Bridge with roller support as rocker support [(1.3)] R
(see 1.1, 1.2) Both downward and uplift
motions are restrained. y
Rx x
y
x
Vertical roller restraints θ
R F
Bridge with rocker support
(see 1.3) (b) Three-dimensional roller
support (friction force F 5 0
for smooth rolling surface;
Rotated or inclined roller reaction Ry acts normal to
support plane x-z on which roller
y translates)
y
z x Ry
z x
3D roller support
2. Pin Support: A single resultant force, usually shown using two rectangular components Rx and Ry
in 2D but three components in 3D, resists motion in any direction normal to the pin. The pin support
cannot resist moment, and the pin is free to rotate about the z axis. In 3D, the pin becomes a ball-
and-socket joint or support.
(a) Two-dimensional pin support

The Earthquake Engineering
y
Online Archive
x
Two-dimensional pin
Rx Ry
y
y
Rx x
© David Chapman/Alamy
Ry
Stock Photo
(b) Three-dimensional pin

support
Ball-and-socket joint model z x
(camera mount, 3D) y
Ball-and-socket joint model
Pelvis
Artificial Rz Rx
hip joint
Ry
z x
Femur
(thigh bone)
Hip prosthesis for hip

replacement
3. Sliding Support: A support that translates without rotation is a sliding support. Examples are a collar sliding
along a sleeve or a flange moving within a slot. Reactions in 2D are a force Rx normal to the sleeve and a
moment Mz representing resistance to rotation relative to the sleeve. In 3D, the sliding support translates on
frictionless plane y-z and reaction moment components My and Mz prevent rotation relative to that plane.
y (a) Two-dimensional sliding

support
(support translates on
frictionless path along 1y
or 2y direction)
x y
Mz
Frictionless sleeve
on vertical shaft Rx
x
Sliding support for column light
Two-dimensional sliding support
stand
Friction F opposes motion in F
1y direction in 2D along sliding (b) Three-dimensional sliding
surface; F is zero if smooth support
surface is assumed. (support translates on
In 3D, add restraint moment M x frictionless y-z plane)
y
to prevent rotation about x axis.
My
Rx x
Mz
(Continued)
Display of restraint
Type of support Simplified sketch of support forces and moments,
or connection or connection or connection forces
4. Fixed Support: No translation or rotation occurs between member and support in a fixed support. This
requires three reaction components in 2D: force components Rx and Ry and moment M z . In 3D, three
force reaction components and three moment reaction components are required.
A (a) Two-dimensional fixed support

Franco Nadalin/Shutterstock.com
y
Mz
Weld
Rx x
Ry
Pole
Base plate Horizontal member
Steel bollard anchored in concrete y
Radovan1/Shutterstock.com
Rx
Mz
Ry
Concrete pier
Vertical member
Fixed support at base of sign
Column bolted to footing (b) Three-dimensional fixed
post
support
y
x
Rz
Mz Rx Mx
Ry
z
My
5. Elastic or Spring Support: In 2D, there may be a longitudinal or normal translational spring or a
combination of both. For linear springs, the support reaction at the base of the spring is the product of
the spring constant k times the displacement d in the direction of the spring axis. If joint A translates
in 1x (d x ) and 1y (d y ) directions, reaction forces Rx and Ry are created in –x and –y directions,
respectively, at the supports of linear translational springs. Alternatively, the support may be pinned for
translation but have moment spring kr for rotation. If joint A rotates about the 1z axis (u z ), reaction
moment M z is created in the –z direction at the base of the rotational spring. In 3D, a fully elastic
support consists of three translational springs (kx , k y , kz ) and three rotational springs (kr x, kr y, kr z ),
and an arbitrary joint displacement results in three reaction forces and three reaction moments. In
the limit, as each spring constant value approaches infinity, the elastic support becomes a fully fixed
support like that shown in Section 4b above.
In 3D, add spring in 1z (a) Translational spring (k) in 2D
Nipon Laicharoenchokchai/
direction kz with reaction force y

Rz 5 2kzd z. δy
A
Shutterstock.com
In 3D, add rotational flexural

spring about 1y direction kry with x
Rx = –kxδx kx δx
reaction moment M y 5 2kryu y ky
and add rotational torsional spring
about 1x direction with reaction
Translational spring support for
moment M x 5 2krxu x . Ry = –kyδ y
heavy equipment
Torsion springs are found in (b) Rotational spring ( kr ) in 2D

Shutterstock.com
window shades and as part of the θz
y
lift mechanism in power garage
montego/
door-opening systems. kr
A x
Rotational spring in a clothespin
Rx
Ry
Mz = − kr θz
6. Wheel on Rail Support: This support is a particular form of the 3D roller support (see Section 1b above).
Now general movement in the x-z plane is constrained by normal force Ry and lateral force Rx , both acting
normal to the rail or slot on which the wheel travels. If friction is considered, friction force F is added along
the rail in the direction opposing the wheel translation.
Wheel rolls on rail or in slot y
along z axis; friction force
opposing motion is neglected;
© Paul Rollins/Alamy
Rx is lateral constraint force, Ry z

is normal force.
Stock Photo
y x
Rx
Ry
x Rx
Ry
Cross section through guide rail

7. Thrust-Bearing Support: A thrust bearing constrains translational motion along the shaft axis while
allowing rotary motion to occur about that axis. Support reaction forces and moment components act in all
directions except for reaction moment M x 5 0 about the thrust axis (in the absence of friction). A special
case is the journal bearing for which axial thrust restraint component Rx 5 0 .
Thrust bearing has support Journal bearing has no axial y
reaction force (Rx, Ry, Rz ) and thrust reaction force ( Rx 5 0) in
My
reaction moment components addition to ( M x 5 0).
(M y, M z )—no moment M x about y
the thrust or rotation (x) axis. Ry
My
dcwcreations/Shutterstock.com
Rx
Ry x
Rz
Rx Mz
Rz z
Mz x
Pillow block bearing
z
Internal Forces (Stress Resultants)

Mechanics of materials is concerned with study of the deformations of the
members or elements that make up the overall deformable body. In order to
compute the member deformations, first find the internal forces and moments
(i.e., the internal stress resultants) at key points along the members of the over-
all structure. It is useful to create graphical displays of the internal axial force,
torsional moment, transverse shear, and bending moment along the axis of each
member of the body so that critical points or regions within the structure are
readily identified. The first step is to make a section cut normal to the axis of
each member so that a FBD can be drawn that displays the internal forces of
interest. For example, Fig. 1-5 shows two cuts made through members ED and
DF in the plane frame; the resulting FBDs now can be used to find N, V, and M
in members ED and DF of the plane frame. Stress resultants N, V, and M are
usually taken along and normal to the member under consideration (i.e., local
or member axes are used), and a deformation sign convention (e.g., tension is
positive, compression is negative) is employed in their solution.
The following examples review the application of the equations of static
equilibrium to solve for external reactions and i nternal forces in truss, beam,
circular shaft, and frame structures. First reaction forces are computed for
a truss structure then member forces are found using the method of joints.
Properly drawn FBDs are essential to the overall solution process. The sec-
ond example involves static analysis of a beam structure to find reactions and
internal forces at a particular section along the beam. In the third example,
reactive and internal torsional moments in a stepped shaft are computed. And,
finally, the fourth example presents the solution of a plane frame structure.
Figure 1-5
FBDs for internal stress
resultants in ED and DF
Fq2 V Fx
M F
q2 M N
N Fy
FBDED V FBDDF
Fq0 D Dx
q0 Dy
V
M M Dy
Dx C
N q1
N
E V D Fq2
B
y
FB
MA
x A Ax
Ay
Example 1-1
Figure 1-6 The plane truss shown in Fig. 1-6 has four joints and five mem-
Plane truss model bers. Find support reactions at A and B and then use the methods
y
of joints and sections to find all member forces. Let P 5 150 kN
P and c 5 3 m.
C 2P
θC = 80° Solution:
a Use the following four-step problem-solving approach.
b
θB = 40° 1. Conceptualize [hypothesize, sketch]: First sketch a

θA = 60°
A D B free-body diagram of the entire truss model (Fig. 1-7).
x
Only known applied forces at C and unknown reaction
c/2 c/2
forces at A and B are shown and then used in an equilib-
rium analysis to find the reactions.
Figure 1-7 2. Categorize [simplify, classify]: Overall equilibrium requires
Free-body diagram of truss model that the force components in x and y directions and the
y moment about the z axis must sum to zero; this leads to
P reaction force components Ax , Ay , and B y . The truss is stat-
C 2P ically determinate (unknowns: m 1 r 5 5 1 3 5 8, knowns:
θC = 80°
a
2 j 5 8), so all member forces can be obtained using the
b
θB = 40° method of joints. If only a few selected member forces are of

θA = 60° interest, the method of sections can be used. Use a statics sign
Ax A B
D x convention when computing external reactions and a defor-
Ay By mation sign convention when solving for member forces.
c/2 c/2
3. Analyze [evaluate; select relevant equations, carry out mathematical solution]:
First find the lengths of members AC and BC needed to compute distances
to lines of action of forces.
Law of sines to find member lengths a and b: Use known angles u A, u B, and uC
and c 5 3 m to find lengths a and b:
sin(u B ) sin(408 ) sin(u A ) sin(608 )
b 5c 5 (3 m) 5 1.958 m, a 5 c 5 (3 m) 5 2.638 m
sin(uC ) sin(808 ) sin(uC ) sin(808 )
Check that computed lengths a and b give length c by using the law of cosines:
c 5 (1.958 m)2 1 (2.638 m)2 2 2(1.958 m)(2.638 m) cos(808 ) 5 3 m

Support reactions: Using the truss model free-body diagram in Fig. 1-7, sum
forces in x and y directions and moments about joint A:
1
SM A 5 0 B y 5 [ P ( b cos(u A )) 1 2 P ( b sin(u A ))] 5 218.5 kN
c
SFx 5 0 Ax 522 P 5 2300 kN
SFy 5 0 Ay 5 P 2 B y 5 268.5 kN
Reaction force components Ax and Ay are both negative, so they act in the
negative x and y directions, respectively, based on a statics sign convention.
Figure 1-8
Free-body diagram of pin y
at each truss joint P
C 2P
AC CD BC
BC
Ax = –300 kN A
60° AD 80° 100° BD 40° B
x
D
Ay = –68.5 kN By = 218.5 kN
Member forces using method of joints: Begin by drawing free-body diagrams

of the pin at each joint (Fig. 1-8). Use a deformation sign convention in which
each member is assumed to be in tension (so the member force arrows act
away from the two joints to which each member is connected). The forces are
concurrent at each joint, so use force equilibrium at each location to find the
unknown member forces.
First sum forces in the y direction at joint A to find member force AC, and
then sum forces in the x direction to get member force AD:
21
SFy 5 0 AC 5 Ay 5 79.1 kN
sin(608 )
SFx 5 0 AD 5 2Ax 2AC cos(608 ) 5 260.4 kN
Summing forces at joint B gives member forces BC and BD as
21
SFy 5 0 BC 5 B y 5 2340 kN
sin(408 )
SFx 5 0 BD 5 2BC cos(408 ) 5 260.4 kN
The minus sign means that member BC is in compression, not in tension as
assumed. Finally, observe that CD is a zero-force member because forces in the
y direction must sum to zero at joint D.
Figure 1-9 Selected member forces using method of sections:

Section cut leading to right-hand free-body diagram An alternative approach is to make a section
cut all the way through the structure to expose
y member forces of interest, such as AD, CD, and
P
BC in Fig. 1-9. Summing moments about joint B
C 2P
θC = 80° confirms that the force in member CD is zero.
BC Summing moments about joint C (which
a
b
CD is not on the free-body diagram but is a con-

θA = 60°
Ax = –300 kN A B venient point about which to sum moments
x
AD D because forces CD and BC act through joint C)
Ay = –68.5 kN By = 218.5 kN
confirms the solution for force AD as
c/2 c/2
1 B ( a ) cos(408 ) 5 260.4 kN
SMC 5 0 AD 5 y
b sin(608 )
Finally, summing moments about A in Fig. 1-9 confirms member force BC:
1
SM A 5 0 BC 5 [2B y c ] 5 2340 kN
c sin(408 )
4. Finalize [conclude; examine answer—Does it make sense? Are units correct?
How does it compare to similar problem solutions?]: There are 2 j 5 8 equilib-
rium equations for the simple plane truss considered, and using the method
of joints, these are obtained by applying SFx 5 0 and SFy 5 0 at each joint
in succession. A computer solution of these simultaneous equations leads to
the three reaction forces and five member forces. The method of sections is
an efficient way to find selected member forces. A key step is the choice of an
appropriate section cut, which isolates the member of interest and eliminates
as many unknowns as possible. This is followed by construction of a free-body
diagram for use in the static equilibrium analysis to compute the member force
of interest. The methods of sections and joints were used, a common solution
approach in plane and space truss analysis.
Example 1-2
A simple beam with an overhang is supported at points A and B (Fig. 1-10). A linearly
varying distributed load of peak intensity q0 5 160 N/m acts on span AB. Concentrated
moment M 0 5 380 N ⋅ m is applied at A, and an inclined concentrated load P 5 200 N
acts at C. The length of segment AB is L 5 4 m, and the length of the overhang BC is 2 m.
Find support reactions at A and B and then calculate the axial force N, shear
force V, and bending moment M at midspan of AB.
Figure 1-10
M0 q0 P
Beam with an
overhang and uniform 4
and concentrated loads
B 3
C
L L/2
A
Solution:
Use the following four-step problem-solving approach.
1. Conceptualize: Find the reaction forces Ay , Bx , and B y using the FBD of the
overall structure shown in Fig. 1-11. Internal axial force N, shear force V, and
bending moment M at midspan of AB (Fig. 1-12) are obtained by cutting the
beam at that location. Either the left-hand or right-hand free-body diagram in
Fig. 1-12 may be used to find N, V, and M.
Figure 1-11
M0 q0
Free-body diagram
of beam 4P/5
B 3P/5
A
L Bx L/2 C
Ay By
Figure 1-12
M0 q0
Left- and right-hand q0 /2 q0 /2
free-body diagrams M M 4P/5
from section cut at B
midspan of AB 3P/5
A V N N
L/2 L/2 B L/2 C
Ay V x
By
2. Categorize: The free-body diagrams in Fig. 1-12 show internal axial force N,
shear force V, and bending moment M in their assumed positive directions
based on a deformation sign convention. Start by finding reaction forces Ay ,
Bx , and B y then use either the left-hand or right-hand free-body diagram in
Fig. 1-12 to find N, V, and M.
3. Analyze:
Solution for external reactions: Sum forces in the x direction to find reaction
force component Bx . Next sum moments about A to find reaction component
B y . Finally, sum forces in the y direction to find reaction Ay . Use a statics sign
convention in the solution as
3
SFx 5 0 P 5 120 N
Bx 5
5
1 1 2L 4 L
SM A 5 0 B y 5 M 0 1 q0 L ( ) 1 P ( L 1 )  5 548 N
L 2 3 5 2 
1 4
SFy 5 0 Ay 5 2B y 1 q0 L 1 P 5 268 N( ↓ )
2 5
Reaction Ay is negative, so in accordance with a statics sign convention, it
acts downward. Reaction components Bx and B y are positive, so they act in
the directions shown in Figs. 1-11 and 1-12. The resultant reaction force at B is
Bres 5 Bx2 1 B y2 5 561 N.
Solution for internal axial force N, shear force V, and moment M at midspan
of AB: Using the left-hand free-body diagram in Fig. 1-12,
1 q0 L
SFx 5 0 N 5 0 SFy 5 0 V 5 Ay 2 5 2148 N( ↑ )
2 2 2

L 1 q L 1 L
SM 5 0 M 5 M 0 1 Ay 2 0  5 190 N ? m
2 2 2 2  3 2 
Alternatively N, V, and M can be obtained if the right-hand free-body dia-
gram is used (Fig. 1-12). Note that the trapezoidal distributed load segment is
treated as two triangular loads when moments are summed to find internal
moment M:
3 4 1 q L
SFx 5 0N 5 Bx 2 P 5 0 SFy 5 0 V 5 2B y 1 P 1  0 1 q0  5 2148 N( ↓ )
5 5 2 2 2
L 4 L L q
1 0 L 1 L  1 L 2 L 
SM 5 0 M 5 B y 2 P  1  2 2 q0  5 190 N ⋅ m
2 5 2 2 2 2 2  3 2  2 2  3 2 
The minus sign on internal shear force V shows that it acts opposite to that
assumed in Fig. 1-12, as indicated by the arrows in the previous equations.
4. Finalize: The results show that computed internal forces (N and V) and
internal moment (M) can be determined using either the left- or right-hand
free-body diagram. This applies for any section taken through the beam at
any point along its length. Plots or diagrams that show the variation of N,
V, and M over the length of the beam are very useful in the design of shafts
and beams, because they readily show the critical regions of the beam where
N, V, and M have maximum values.
Example 1-3
A stepped circular shaft is fixed at A and has three gears that transmit the torques
shown in Fig. 1-13. Find the reaction torque MAx at A and then find the internal
torsional moments in segments AB, BC, and CD. Use properly drawn free-body
diagrams in your solution.
Figure 1-13
Stepped circular
shaft subjected to
concentrated torques
MAx
1900 N.m
A
1000 N.m
550 N.m
B
C
x
D
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placed a small piece of paper upon which was written a letter of the
alphabet. When any wire was charged, the paper letters at each end
of it were attracted towards the metal balls, and in this way words
and sentences were spelled out. Many other systems more or less
on the same lines were suggested during the next fifty years, but
although some of them had considerable success in an experimental
way, they were all far too unreliable to have any commercial
success.
With the invention of the voltaic cell, inventors’ ideas took a new
direction. In 1812 a telegraph based upon the power of an electric
current to decompose water was devised by a German named
Sömmering. He used a number of separate wires, each connected to
a gold pin projecting from below into a glass vessel filled with
acidulated water. There were thirty-five wires in all, for letters and
numbers, and when a current was sent along any wire bubbles of
gas formed at the pin at the end of it, and so the letters or numbers
were indicated. This telegraph, like its predecessors, never came
into practical use. Oersted’s discovery in 1829 of the production of
magnetism by electricity laid the foundation of the first really practical
electric telegraphs, but little progress was made until the appearance
of the Daniell cell, in 1836. The earlier forms of voltaic cells polarized
so rapidly that it was impossible to obtain a constant current from
them, but the non-polarizing Daniell cell at once removed all difficulty
in this respect. In the year 1837 three separate practical telegraphs
were invented: by Morse in the United States, by Wheatstone and
Cooke in England, and by Steinheil in Munich.
The first telegraph of Wheatstone and Cooke consisted of five
magnetic needles pivoted on a vertical dial. The letters of the
alphabet were marked on the dial, and the needles were deflected
by currents made to pass through wires by the depression of keys,
so that two needles would point towards the required letter. Fig. 26 is
a sketch of the dial of this apparatus. This telegraph was tried
successfully on the London and North-Western Railway, over a wire
a mile and a half in length. Wheatstone and Cooke afterwards
invented a single-needle telegraph in which the letters were
indicated by movements of the needle to the right or to the left,
according to the direction of a
current sent through a coil of
wire. Wheatstone
subsequently produced an
apparatus which printed the
letters on paper.
In the United States,
Morse had thought out a
scheme of telegraphy in 1832,
but it was not until 1837 that
he got his apparatus into
working order. He was an
artist by profession, and for a
long time he was unable to
develop his ideas for lack of
money. After many efforts he
succeeded in obtaining a
State grant of £6000 for the
construction of a telegraph
line between Baltimore and
Washington, and the first
message over this line was
sent in 1844, the line being
thrown open to the public in
Fig. 26.—Dial of Five-Needle Telegraph. the following year. Amongst
the features of this telegraph
were a receiving instrument which automatically recorded the
messages on a moving paper ribbon, by means of a pencil actuated
by an electro-magnet; and an apparatus called a relay, which
enabled the recording instrument to be worked when the current was
enfeebled by the resistance of a very long wire. Morse also devised
a telegraphic code which is practically the same as that in use to-
day.
The great discovery of the German Steinheil was that a second
wire for the return of the current was not necessary, and that the
earth could be used for this part of the circuit.
In reading the early history of great inventions one is continually
struck with the indifference or even hostility shown by the general
public. In England the electric telegraph was practically ignored until
the capture of a murderer by means of it literally forced the public to
see its value. The murder was committed near Slough, and the
murderer succeeded in taking train for London. Fortunately the Great
Western Railway had a telegraph line between Slough and London,
and a description telegraphed to Paddington enabled the police to
arrest the murderer on his arrival. In the United States too there was
just the same indifference. The rate for messages on the line
between Baltimore and Washington was one cent for four words, and
the total amount taken during the first four days was one cent!
One of the simplest forms of telegraph is the single-needle
instrument. This consists of a magnetic needle fixed to a spindle at
the back of an upright board through which the spindle is passed. On
the same spindle, but in front of the board, is fixed a dial needle,
which, of course, moves along with the magnetic needle. A coil of
wire is passed round the magnetic needle, and connected to a
commutator for reversing the direction of the current. By turning a
handle to the left a current is made to flow through the coil, and the
magnetic needle moves to one side; but if the handle is turned to the
right the current flows through the coil in the opposite direction, and
the needle moves to the other side. Instead of a handle, two keys
may be used, the movement of the needle varying according to
which key is pressed. A good operator can transmit at the rate of
about twenty words a minute with this instrument. The Morse code,
which consists of combinations of dots and dashes, is used, a
movement of the dial needle to the left meaning a dot, and one to the
right a dash. The code as used in the single-needle instrument is
shown in Fig. 27.
Fig. 27.—Code for Single-Needle
Telegraph.
Needle instruments are largely used in railway signal cabins, but

for general telegraphic work an instrument called the Morse sounder
is employed. This consists of an electro-magnet which, when a
current is passed through it, attracts a small piece of iron fixed to one
end of a pivoted lever. The other end of this lever moves between
two stops. At the transmitting station the operator closes a battery
circuit by pressing a key, when the electro-magnet of the sounder at
the receiving station attracts the iron, and the lever flies from one
stop to the other with a sharp click, returning again as soon as the
circuit is broken. A dot is signalled when the lever falls back
immediately after the click, and a dash when it makes a short stay
before returning. Fig. 28 shows the code of signals for the Morse
telegraph.
Fig. 28.—The Morse Code.
In passing through a very long wire an electric current becomes

greatly reduced in strength owing to the resistance of the wire. If two
telegraph stations are a great distance apart the energy of the
current thus may be unequal to the task of making the electro-
magnet move the lever of the sounder so as to produce a click, but
this difficulty is overcome by the use of an ingenious arrangement
called a “relay.” It consists of a very small electro-magnet which
attracts a light bar, the movement of the bar being made to close the
circuit of another battery at the receiving station. The feeble current
works the relay, and the current in the local circuit operates the
sounder.
The word “telegraph,” which is derived from the Greek tele, far
off, and grapho, I write, strictly signifies writing at a distance. The
needle instrument and the sounder do not write in any way, but by
modifying the construction of the sounder it can be made to record
the messages it receives. A small wheel is fitted to the free end of
the lever of the sounder, and an ink-well is placed so that the wheel
dips into it when the lever is in the normal position. When the circuit
is closed the lever moves just as in the ordinary sounder, but instead
of clicking against a stop it presses the inked wheel against a paper
ribbon which is kept slowly moving forward by clockwork. In this way
the wheel continues to mark a line along the paper as long as the
circuit remains closed, and according to the time the transmitting key
is kept down a short mark or dot, or a long mark or dash, is
produced. The clockwork which moves the paper ribbon is started
automatically by the current, and it continues working until the
message is finished.
Fig. 29.—A Morse Message.
(a) Perforated Tape. (b) Printed Tape.
TRANSLATION.
Series of alternate dots and dashes indicating commencement of message.
Sec (section) A. D. T. (Daily Telegraph) Fm (from) Berri, Antivari.
Then follow the letters G. Q., signifying fresh line.
They hd (had) bn (been) seen advancing in t (the) distance and wr (were)
recognised by thr (their) usual uniform wh (which) consists o (of) a white fez.
Finally double dots indicating full stop.
A good Morse operator can maintain a speed of about thirty
words a minute, but this is far too slow for certain kinds of
telegraphic work, such as the transmission of press news, and for
such work the Wheatstone automatic transmitter is used. First of all
the messages are punched on a paper ribbon. This is done by
passing the ribbon from right to left by clockwork through a punching
machine which is provided with three keys, one for dots, one for
dashes, and the other for spaces. If the left-hand key is pressed, two
holes opposite to one another are made, representing a dot; and if
the right-hand key is pressed, two diagonal holes are punched,
representing a dash. In Fig. 29, which shows a piece of ribbon
punched in this way, a third line of holes will be noticed between the
outside holes representing the dots and dashes. These holes are for
the purpose of guiding the paper ribbon steadily along through the
transmitting machine. The punched ribbon is then drawn by
clockwork through a Wheatstone transmitter. In this machine two
oscillating needles, connected with one pole of a battery, are placed
below the moving ribbon. Each time a hole passes, these needles
make contact with a piece of metal connected with the other pole of
the battery, thus making and breaking the circuit with much greater
rapidity than is possible with the Morse key. At the receiving station
the messages are recorded by a form of Morse inker, coming out in
dots and dashes as though sent by hand. Below the punched ribbon
in Fig. 29 is shown the corresponding arrangement of dots and
dashes. The same punched ribbon may be used repeatedly when
the message has to be sent on a number of different lines. The
Wheatstone automatic machine is capable of transmitting at the rate
of from 250 to 400 words a minute. Fig. 29 is a fragment of a Daily
Telegraph Balkan War special, as transmitted to the Yorkshire Post
over the latter’s private wire from London to Leeds. In the translation
it will be seen that many common words are abbreviated.
One weak point of telegraphy with Wheatstone instruments is
that the messages are received in Morse code, and have to be
translated. During recent years telegraphs have been invented which
actually produce their messages in ordinary written or printed
characters. A very ingenious instrument is the Hughes printing
telegraph, which turns out messages in typewritten form. Its
mechanism is too complicated to be described here, but in general it
consists of a transmitter having a keyboard something like that of a
typewriter, by means of which currents of electricity are made to
press a sheet of paper at the right instant against a revolving type-
wheel bearing the various characters. This telegraph has been
modified and brought to considerable perfection, and in one form or
another it is used in European countries and in the United States.
In the Pollak-Virag system of telegraphy the action of light upon
sensitized photographic paper is utilized. An operator punches
special groupings of holes on a paper ribbon about 1 inch wide, by
means of a perforating machine resembling a typewriter, and the
ribbon is then passed through a machine which transmits by brush
contacts. The receiver consists of a very small mirror connected to
two vibrating diaphragms, which control its movements according to
the currents received, one diaphragm moving the mirror in a vertical
direction, and the other in a horizontal direction. The mirror reflects a
ray of light on to photographic bromide paper in the form of a moving
band about 3 inches in width, and the combined action of the two
diaphragms makes the mirror move so that the ray of light traces out
the messages in ordinary alphabetical characters. As it moves
forward after being acted upon by the light, the paper is
automatically developed and fixed, and then passed through drying
rollers. Although the writing is rather imperfect in formation it is quite
legible enough for most messages, but trouble occasionally occurs
with messages containing figures, owing to confusion arising from
the similarity of the figures, 3, 5, and 8. The whole process is carried
out with such rapidity that 40,000 or even more words can be
transmitted easily in an hour.
One of the most remarkable of present-day telegraphs is the
Creed high-speed automatic printing telegraph. This has been
devised to do away with hand working as far as possible, and to
substitute quicker and more accurate automatic methods. In this
system a perforated paper tape is produced by a keyboard perforator
at the sending station. This tape is just ordinary Wheatstone tape, its
perforations representing in the Morse code the message to be
transmitted; and the main advantage of the Creed perforator over the
three-key punching machine already described lies in the ease and
speed with which it can be worked. The keyboard contains a
separate key for each letter or signal of the Morse code, and the
pressing of any key brings into operation certain punches which
make the perforations corresponding to that particular letter. The
perforator can be worked by any one who understands how to use
an ordinary typewriter, and a speed of about 60 words a minute can
be maintained by a fairly skilful operator. If desired a number of
tapes may be perforated at the same time.
The tape prepared in this way is passed through a Wheatstone
transmitter, and long or short currents, according to the arrangement
of the perforations, are sent out along the telegraph line. At the
receiving station these signals operate a receiving perforator. This
machine produces another perforated tape, which is an exact copy
of the tape at the sending station, and it turns out this duplicate tape
at the rate of from 150 to 200 words a minute. There are two forms
of this receiving perforator, one worked entirely by electricity, and the
other by a combination of electricity and compressed air, both forms
serving the same purpose. The duplicate tape is then passed
through an automatic printer, which reproduces the message in large
Roman characters on a paper tape. The printer works at a speed of
from 80 to about 100 words a minute, and the printed tape is pasted
on a telegraphic form by a semi-automatic process, and the
message is then ready for delivery. Plate XI. shows a specimen of
the tape from the receiving perforator, and the corresponding
translation as turned out by the printer. This message formed part of
a leading article in the Daily Mail. Some idea of the wonderful
capabilities of the Creed system may be gained from the fact that by
means of it practically the whole contents of the Daily Mail are
telegraphed every night from London to Manchester and Paris, for
publication next morning.
One of the most remarkable features about present-day
telegraphy is the ease with which two or more messages can be sent
simultaneously over one line. Duplex telegraphy, or the simultaneous
transmission of two separate messages in opposite directions over
one wire, is now practised on almost every line of any importance. At
first sight duplex telegraphy seems to be an impossibility, for if we
have two stations, one at each end of a single wire, and each station
fitted with a transmitter and a receiver, it appears as if each
transmitter would affect not only the receiver at the opposite end of
the wire, but also the receiver at its own end, thus causing hopeless
confusion when both transmitters were in use at the same time. This
actually would be the case with ordinary telegraphic methods, but by
the use of a special arrangement all confusion in working is avoided.
PLATE XI.
By permission of Creed, Bille & Co. Ltd.
SPECIMEN OF THE WORK OF THE CREED HIGH-SPEED PRINTING

TELEGRAPH.
We have seen that a magnetic needle is deflected by a current
passing through a coil of wire placed round it, and that the direction
in which the needle is deflected depends upon the direction of the
current in the coil. Now suppose we place round the needle two coils
of wire, wound so that the current in one flows in a direction opposite
to that of the current in the other. Then, if we pass two equal
currents, one through each coil, it is evident that they will neutralize
one another, so that the needle will not be deflected at all. In a
duplex system one end of one of these coils is connected to earth,
say to a copper plate buried in the ground, and one end of the other
to the line wire. The two remaining ends are arranged as branches
leading off from a single wire connected with the transmitting key.
The whole arrangement of coils and needle is repeated at the other
end of the line. If now the transmitting key at station A is pressed, the
circuit is closed and a current flows along the single wire, and then
divides into two where the wire branches, half of it taking the path
through one coil and half the path through the other. Equal currents
thus flow through the oppositely wound coils, and the needle at
station A is not deflected. Leaving the coils, one of these equal
currents flows away to earth, while the other passes out along the
line wire. On its arrival at station B the current is able to pass through
only one of the coils round the needle, and consequently the needle
is deflected and the signal given. In this way the transmitting
operator at station A is able to signal to station B without affecting
the receiver at his own end, and similarly the operator at station B
can transmit to A without affecting the B receiver. Thus there can be
no confusion whether the transmitters are worked at different times
or simultaneously, for each transmitter affects only the receiver at the
opposite end of the line. The diagram in Fig. 30 will help to make
clearer the general principle. K and K¹ are the two transmitting keys
which close the circuit, and C and C¹ are the points at which the
current divides into two. Instead of coils and needles, electro-
magnets operating sounders may be used, such magnets having two
separate and oppositely wound coils, acting in exactly the same way
as the coils round the needles. The above description is of course
only a rough outline of the method, and in practice matters are more
complicated, owing to the necessity for carefully adjusted
resistances and for condensers. There is also another and different
method of duplexing a line, but we have not space to describe it.
Duplex telegraphy requires two operators at each end of the line,
one to send and the other to receive.
Diplex telegraphy is the simultaneous transmission of two
separate messages in the same direction over one line. Without
going into details it may be said that for this purpose two different
transmitting keys are required, one of which alters the direction, and
the other the strength of the current though the line wire. The
receivers are arranged so that one responds only to a strong current,
and the other only to a current in one particular direction. A line also
may be quadruplexed, so that it is possible to transmit
simultaneously two messages from each end, four operators being
required at each station, two to transmit and two to receive. Systems
of multiplex telegraphy have been devised by which very large
numbers of messages can be sent at once over a single wire, and
the Baudot multiplex telegraph has proved very successful.
Fig. 30.—Diagram to illustrate principle of Duplex Telegraphy.
The wires for telegraphic purposes may be conveyed either

above or below the ground. Overground wires are carried on poles
by means of insulators of porcelain or other non-conducting material,
protected by a sort of overhanging screen. The wires are left bare,
and they are generally made of copper, but iron is used in some
cases. In underground lines the wires formerly were insulated by a
covering of gutta-percha, but now paper is generally used. Several
wires, each covered loosely with thoroughly dry paper, are laid
together in a bundle, the whole bundle or cable being enclosed in a
strong lead pipe. The paper coverings are made to fit loosely so that
the wires are surrounded by an insulating layer of dry air. As many
as 1200 separate wires are sometimes enclosed in one pipe. In
order to keep telegraph lines in working order frequent tests are
necessary, and the most important British Postal Telegraph lines are
tested once a week between 7.30 and 7.45 a.m. The earth is
generally used for the return circuit in telegraphy, and the ends of the
return wires are connected either to metal plates buried in the
ground to a depth at which the earth is permanently moist, or to iron
gas or water pipes. The current for telegraph working on a small
scale is usually supplied by primary cells, the Daniell cell being a
favourite for this purpose. In large offices the current is generally
taken from a battery of storage cells.
During the early days of telegraphy, overhead lines were a
source of considerable danger when thunderstorms were taking
place. Lightning flashes often completely wrecked the instruments,
giving severe shocks to those in the vicinity, and in a few cases
operators were killed at their posts. Danger of this kind is now
obviated by the use of contrivances known as lightning arresters.
There are several forms of these, but only one need be mentioned.
The main features of this are two metal plates separated slightly
from one another, so that there is a small air gap between them. One
plate is connected to the line wire, and the other to earth. Almost all
lightning flashes consist of an oscillatory discharge, that is one which
passes a number of times backwards and forwards between a cloud
and the earth. A very rapidly alternating discharge of this kind finds
difficulty in passing along the line wire, being greatly impeded by the
coils of wire in the various pieces of apparatus; and although the
resistance of this air gap is very high, the lightning discharge will
cross the gap sooner than struggle along the line wire. In this way,
when a flash affects the line, the discharge jumps the gap between
the plates of the arrester and passes away harmlessly to earth,
without entering the telegraph office at all. As was mentioned in
Chapter III., the prevalence of magnetic storms sometimes renders
telegraph lines quite unworkable for a time, but although such
disturbances cause great delay and general inconvenience, they are
not likely to be at all dangerous. It is often possible to maintain
telegraphic communication during magnetic disturbances by using
two lines to form a complete metallic loop, so that there is no earth
return.
CHAPTER XVII
SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHY
The story of submarine telegraphy is a wonderful record of dogged

perseverance in the face of tremendous obstacles and disastrous
failures. It would be of no interest to trace the story to its very
beginning, and so we will commence with the laying of the first cable
across the English Channel from Dover to Calais, in 1850. A single
copper wire covered with a layer of gutta-percha half an inch thick
was used, and leaden weights were attached to it at intervals of one
hundred yards, the fixing of each weight necessitating the stoppage
of the cable-laying ship. The line was laid successfully, but it failed
after working for a single day, and it afterwards turned out that a
Boulogne fisherman had hauled up the cable with his trawl. This line
proved that telegraphic communication between England and France
was possible, but the enterprise was assailed with every imaginable
kind of abuse and ridicule. It is said that some people really believed
that the cable was worked in the style of the old-fashioned house
bell, and that the signals were given by pulling the wire! In the next
year another attempt was made by Mr. T. R. Crampton, a prominent
railway engineer, who himself contributed half of the £15,000
required. The form of cable adopted by him consisted of four copper
wires, each covered with two layers of gutta-percha, and the four
enclosed in a covering formed of ten galvanized iron wires wound
spirally round them. The line proved a permanent success, and this
type of cable, with certain modifications, is still in use. In 1852 three
attempts were made to connect England and Ireland, but the first two
failed owing to the employment of cables too light to withstand the
strong tidal currents, and the third was somehow mismanaged as
regards the paying-out, so that there was not enough cable to reach
across. A heavier cable was tried in the next year, and this was a
lasting success.
The success of these two cables led to the laying of many other
European cables over similar distances, but we must now pass on to
a very much bigger undertaking, the laying of the Atlantic cable. In
1856 the Atlantic Telegraph Company was formed, with the object of
establishing and working telegraphic communication between Ireland
and Newfoundland, the three projectors being Messrs. J. W. Brett,
C. T. Bright, and C. W. Field. The British and the United States
Governments granted a subsidy, in return for which Government
messages were to have priority over all others, and were to be
transmitted free. The objections launched against the scheme were
of course many, some of them making very amusing reading. It is
however very strange to find so eminent a scientist as Professor
Airy, then Astronomer Royal, seriously stating that it was a
mathematical impossibility to submerge a cable safely to such
depths, and that even if this could be done, messages could not be
transmitted through such a great length of cable.
It was estimated that a length of about 2500 nautical miles would
be enough to allow for all contingencies, and the construction of the
cable was commenced in February 1857, and completed in June of
that year. It is difficult to realize the gigantic nature of the task of
making a cable of such dimensions. The length of copper wire used
in making the conductor was 20,500 miles, while the outer sheathing
took 367,500 miles of iron wire; the total length of wire used being
enough to go round the Earth thirteen times. The cable was finally
stowed away on board two warships, one British and the other
American.
The real troubles began with the laying of the cable. After landing
the shore end in Valentia Bay, the paying-out commenced, but
scarcely had five miles been laid when the cable caught in the
paying-out machinery and parted. By tracing it from the shore the
lost end was picked up and spliced, and the paying-out began again.
Everything went well for two or three days, and then, after 380 miles
had been laid, the cable snapped again, owing to some
mismanagement of the brakes, and was lost at a depth of 2000
fathoms. The cable had to be abandoned, and the ships returned to
Plymouth.
In the next year, 1858, another attempt was made, with new and
improved machinery and 3000 miles of cable, and this time it was
decided that the two ships should start paying-out from mid-ocean,
proceeding in opposite directions towards the two shores after
splicing their cables. On the voyage out the expedition encountered
one of the most fearful storms on record, which lasted over a week,
and the British man-of-war, encumbered with the dead weight of the
cable, came near to disaster. Part of the cable shifted, and those on
board feared that the whole of the huge mass would break away and
crash through the vessel’s side. Sixteen days after leaving Plymouth
the rendezvous was reached, the cables were spliced and the ships
started. After the British ship had paid out 40 miles it was discovered
that the cable had parted at some distance from the ship, and the
vessels once more sought each other, and spliced again ready for
another effort. This time the cable parted after each vessel had paid
out a little more than 100 miles, and the ships were forced to
abandon the attempt.
The failure of this second expedition naturally caused great
discouragement, and the general feeling was that the whole
enterprise would have to be given up. The chairman of the company
recommended that in order to make the best of a bad job the
remainder of the cable should be sold, and the proceeds divided
amongst the shareholders, but after great efforts on the part of a
dauntless few who refused to admit defeat, it was finally decided to
make one more effort. No time was lost, and on 17th July 1858 the
vessels again sailed from Queenstown. As before, the cables were
spliced in mid-ocean, and this time, after many anxious days, many
false alarms, and one or two narrow escapes from disaster through
faulty pieces of cable discovered almost too late, the cable was
landed successfully on both shores of the Atlantic early in August.
The Atlantic cable was now an accomplished fact, and dismal
forebodings were turned into expressions of extravagant joy. The
first messages passed between Queen Victoria and the President of
the United States, and amongst the more important communications
was one which prevented the sailing from Canada of two British
regiments which had been ordered to India during the Mutiny. In the
meantime the Indian Mutiny had been suppressed, and therefore
these regiments were not required. The dispatch of this message
saved a sum of about £50,000. The prospects of the cable company
seemed bright, but after a short time the signals began to grow
weaker and weaker, and finally, after about seven hundred
messages had been transmitted, the cable failed altogether. This
was a great blow to the general public, and we can imagine the bitter
disappointment of the engineers and electricians who had laboured
so hard and so long to bring the cable into being. It was a favourable
opportunity for the croakers, and amongst a certain section of the
public doubts were expressed as to whether any messages had
been transmitted at all.
A great consultation of experts took place with the object of
determining the cause of the failure, and the unanimous opinion was
that the cable had been injured by the use of currents of too great
intensity. Some years elapsed before another attempt could be
made, but the idea was never abandoned, and a great deal of study
was given to the problems involved. Mr. Field, the most energetic of
the original projectors, never relaxed his determination that the cable
should be made a success, and he worked incessantly to achieve
his ambition. It is said that in pursuance of his object he made sixty-
four crossings of the Atlantic, and considering that he suffered
greatly from sea-sickness every time this shows remarkable pluck
and endurance.
In 1865, new capital having been raised, preparations were
made for another expedition. It was now decided to use only one
vessel for laying the cable, and the Great Eastern was chosen for
the task. This vessel had been lying idle for close on ten years,
owing to her failure as a cargo boat, but her great size and capacity
made her most suitable for carrying the enormous weight of the
whole cable. In July 1865 the Great Eastern set sail, under the
escort of two British warships. When 84 miles had been paid out, a
fault occurred, and after drawing up about 10½ miles it was found
that a piece of iron wire had pierced the coating of the cable. The
trouble was put right, and the paying-out continued successfully until
over 700 miles had been laid, when another fault appeared. The
cable was again drawn in until the fault was reached, and another
piece of iron was found piercing clean through. It was evident that
two such pieces of iron could not have got there by accident, and
there was no doubt that they had been inserted intentionally by some
malicious scoundrel, most likely with the object of affecting the
company’s shares. A start was made once more, and all went well
until about two-thirds of the distance had been covered, when the
cable broke and had to be abandoned after several nearly
successful attempts to recover it.
In spite of the loss, which amounted to £600,000, the energetic
promoters contrived to raise fresh capital, and in 1866 the Great
Eastern started again. This effort was completely successful, and on
28th July 1866 the cable was landed amidst great rejoicing. The
following extracts from the diary of the engineer Sir Daniell Gooch,
give us some idea of the landing.
“Is it wrong that I should have felt as though my heart would
burst when that end of our long line touched the shore amid the
booming of cannon, the wild, half-mad cheers and shouts of the
men?... I am given a never-dying thought; that I aided in laying the
Atlantic cable.... The old cable hands seemed as though they could
eat the end; one man actually put it into his mouth and sucked it.
They held it up and danced round it, cheering at the top of their
voices. It was a strange sight, nay, a sight that filled our eyes with
tears.... I did cheer, but I could better have silently cried.”
This time the cable was destined to have a long and useful life,
and later in the same year the 1865 cable was recovered, spliced to
a new length, and safely brought to land, so that there were now two
links between the Old World and the New. It was estimated that the
total cost of completing the great undertaking, including the cost of
the unsuccessful attempts, was nearly two and a half millions
sterling. Since 1866 cable-laying has proceeded very rapidly, and to-
day telegraphic communication exists between almost all parts of the
civilized world. According to recent statistics, the North Atlantic
Ocean is now crossed by no less than 17 cables, the number of

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Barry J. Goodno | James M. Gere

Barry J. Goodno | James M. Gere

Brass 82–85 8400–8600

Bronze 80–86 8200–8800

Cast iron 68–72 7000–7400

Glass 24–28 2400–2800

Magnesium alloys 17–18 1760–1830

Monel (67% Ni, 30% Cu) 87 8800

Rubber 9–13 960–1300

Sand, soil, gravel 12–21 1200–2200

Steel 77.0 7850

Tungsten 190 1900

Water, fresh 9.81 1000

Wood (air dry)

Brass 96–110 36–41 0.34

Bronze 96–120 36–44 0.34

Cast iron 83–170 32–69 0.2–0.3

Concrete (compression) 17–31 0.1–0.2

Copper and copper alloys 110–120 40–47 0.33–0.36

Glass 48–83 19–35 0.17–0.27

Magnesium alloys 41–45 15–17 0.35

Monel (67% Ni, 30% Cu) 170 66 0.32

Nickel 210 80 0.31

Rubber 0.0007–0.004 0.0002–0.001 0.45–0.50

Steel 190–210 75–80 0.27–0.30

Titanium alloys 100–120 39–44 0.33

Tungsten 340–380 140–160 0.2

Unless otherwise noted, all items © Cengage Learning.

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6. Stresses in Beams (Advanced Topics) 569 9. Deflections of Beams 811

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θB = 40° dimensions and loadings.

c 5 (1.958 m)2 1 (2.638 m) 2 2 2(1.958 m)(2.638 m) cos(808 ) 5 3 m

List the major steps in the Finalize step,

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