Social Democratic Capitalism Lane

Kenworthy
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Social Democratic Capitalism
Social Democratic Capitalism

L A N E K E N W O RT H Y

1
 1
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© Lane Kenworthy 2020

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The arc of the moral universe is long, but it bends toward justice.
—​Martin Luther King Jr.

The legitimate object of government is to do for a community of people

whatever they need to have done but can not do at all, or can not do so
well, for themselves in their separate and individual capacities.
—​Abraham Lincoln

If we keep track of how our laws and manners are doing, think up ways
to improve them, try them out, and keep the ones that make people
better off, we can gradually make the world a better place.
—​Steven Pinker
 CONTENTS

1. Sources of Successful Societies  1

PART 1 SOCIAL DEMOCR ATIC CAPITALISM

2. Social Democratic Capitalism and the Good Society  19

3. Is Its Success Generalizable?  72
4. Is There an Attractive Small-​Government Alternative?  94
5. Why Not a Basic Income?  113

PART 2 SOCIAL DEMOCR ATIC AMERICA

6. America Is Underachieving  121
7. A Better America  160
8. How to Get There  202

Acknowledgments  235
Notes  237
References  255
Index  283
 1

Sources of Successful Societies

For nations, as for individuals, it’s good to be rich. Affluent countries are more
likely to be democratic, more likely to have government programs that cushion
life’s bumps and boost the capabilities and well-​being of the less fortunate, and
more likely to prioritize personal liberty. Their citizens tend to be more secure,
better educated, healthier, freer, and happier.
The world’s twenty or so rich democratic countries aren’t all alike, and they’ve
changed a good bit over the past century.1 Their experiences give us helpful
clues about what institutions and policies best promote human flourishing.
To this point in history, the most successful societies have been those that fea-
ture capitalism, a democratic political system, good elementary and secondary
(K–​12) schooling, a big welfare state, employment-​conducive public services,
and moderate regulation of product and labor markets.2 I call this set of policies
and institutions “social democratic capitalism.”
Social democratic capitalism improves living standards for the least well-​off,
enhances economic security, and very likely boosts equality of opportunity. It
does so without sacrificing the many other things we want in a good society,
from liberty to economic growth and much more. Its chief practitioners have
been the Nordic nations: Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Contrary to
what some presume, there is no good reason to think social democratic capi-
talism will work well only in these countries. Its success almost certainly is trans-
ferable to other affluent nations. Indeed, all of those nations already are partial
adopters of social democratic capitalism.
The United States, the largest of the world’s rich democracies, is one of those
partial adopters. If the United States were to expand some of its existing public
social programs and add some additional ones, many ordinary Americans would
have better lives. Despite formidable political obstacles, there is good reason to
think America will move in this direction in coming decades.
Those are my conclusions. This book provides the evidence and the reasoning.

1
2 So cial De mo cr atic Capitalism

Affluence and Its Consequences

Let’s begin with some context. The extent of human progress over the past two
centuries is astonishing. The starting point is improvement in economic well-​
being. Economic historians have estimates of gross domestic product (GDP)
per person back to the year ad 1 for France and back a few centuries or more for
some other countries. For most of the past two thousand years—​and by exten-
sion, for virtually all of human history—​the quantity of goods and services we
produced barely budged.3 Then, around the middle of the 1800s, nations such
as the United States, Germany, France, and a handful of others stumbled upon
an institutional framework featuring markets, government provision of property
rights and public goods, and the scientific method. This configuration has proved
conducive to rapid and sustained economic advance, as we see in Figure 1.1.4
As societies get richer, they change in a variety of ways. Among these changes
are shifts in what people want and what they prioritize. Three are particularly
important.
First, people tend to dislike loss.5 The higher our income, the more insurance
we are willing to purchase in order to minimize potential loss. For some types
of insurance, such as insurance against low income in old age, government is
the most effective provider. Germany created a public old-​age pension program
in the late 1800s, and other industrializing countries began to do so in the first
half of the twentieth century, with many introducing or expanding them during
the Great Depression in the 1930s. While many nations now have this type of

United States
$50k
Germany

France

0
1 1850
Year

Figure 1.1 GDP per capita. Adjusted for inflation and converted to 2011 US dollars using
purchasing power parities. “k” = thousand. The data begin in ad 1 for France, in 1500 for Germany,
and in 1650 for the United States. Data source: Maddison Project Database 2018, rug.nl/​ggdc.
 Source s o f Succe s s f ul Soc i e ti e s 3

100% Les
Kyr
Tim Guy
Uzb Mng
Bol
Nam Mus
MaldBot Rom
Bul
Lat
Sey
Lit
Rus
Svk Cze
Pol Est Svn
Kaz
TT Fr
Por NZ UK Fin
Ger
Ice
Swe
Can
Den
Nth Swi
Aus Nor
Ukr Blr

Old−age pension coverage

SAf Hun IreUS
Geo Tur
Swa Bra Bhs Cyp Asl
Bel
TjkArm AzeTha Ja It
AlbSVGUru Chl Kor Grc
China
Mol Isr HK
Tun Brb AB Sp
Nep MI Bez Alg
Ven Cro Mlt
CV Jam Irq
CR
Ecu
Mon
Mac
Sam Pala
Ser SKN Lib
STP Jor Bahr
BanMorDom Pan Gab
VietPer
EgyGren
PhiBHSL Irn
India
SenNic Mex Oma
ParCol
Cog
Tuv ES Mly
Moz Sri
CDR
SI Gua
Cmr
Dji Fji
Tgo
Gam
Afg DR
Ben
Eth
GinMrt
KenYem
Hon
CdI
Zam
Gha PalIdn
Uga
GuB
Zim
Ner
Mli
Camb
Rwa Lao
Sud
Mad
Mwi
Bdi
Van
Tza
BF Bhu
Pak
0 Cha
Hai
PNG
SL Ton Leb

0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.2 Affluence and public old-​age pension coverage. Old-​age pension coverage: share
of statutory pension-​age population. 2004–​2013. Data source: United Nations Development Program
(UNDP), “Human Development Data,” using data from the International Labour Office (ILO),
World Social Protection Report. GDP per capita: converted to 2011 US dollars using purchasing power
parities. “k” = thousand. 2005. Data source: UNDP, “Human Development Data.” Three small, rich
city-​states (Andorra, Luxembourg, Singapore) are omitted. The line is a loess curve, calculated with
five oil-​rich nations excluded.

public program, richer countries tend to have more expansive ones, as Figure
1.2 shows.
Government also plays an important role in the provision of health insurance.
As we see in Figure 1.3, public spending on healthcare tends to rise as nations
get richer. The same is true for education, as Figure 1.4 shows. (The association
in this figure would be even stronger but for the fact that virtually all countries
have universal government-​funded K–​12 schooling, which requires significant
expenditure regardless of national wealth.)
Much of what modern governments spend money on is public insurance.
Some programs protect against loss of income due to old age, unemployment,
illness, disability, family needs, discrimination, and other conditions and
circumstances. Other programs ensure widespread availability of schooling,
healthcare, housing, job training and placement, transportation, and other
services and goods. As a country gets more affluent, the welfare state tends
to grow.6
A second change in people’s desires as they get richer is to want more fair-
ness in their society.7 Drawing on several decades of public opinion survey data
from multiple countries, Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel have found
that once people can be confident of survival and of a decent standard of living,
they tend to shift away from a worldview that emphasizes traditional sources
of authority, religious dictates, traditional social roles, and the well-​being of
4 So cial De mo cr atic Capitalism

10% Swe
Nth
NZFr Den

Public health expenditures

Ja Ger
Aus
Kir
Les Bel US Nor
UK Can Swi
FinIce
Dji SwaBH CR SvnSp
It
Sam Ser Pala Cro Cze Asl
Mwi Uru Por
Pan Svk
Nam Tha
Col
Mol
Nic JorAlg Ire
Gam Grc
HunEst Isr
SIHon
Van Bol
Ton Par
ES Ecu Brb
SVG Bul
Rom PolLit
Cog
Bdi Viet SAf
Mac Tur
Tun Bra AB Kor
Moz Bez
Dom LibBlr Chl
LatRus
STP
KyrCV
PNG
Ken UkrSL Mon Bhs SAr
Ner
Lbr UzbGuy PerIrq
Mex
Bot
China SeyCyp
TT Oma Bahr
Rwa
Afg
Eth
ZamBhu Fji
Alb
Jam Leb
DR Sur
Gren Irn EG
Gin
BF
Tza
Zim Mng UAEBru
Kuw
Sen Gua
Ben
Nep
Com Egy Mus Gab KazMly
CAR
TgoGha
Cha
Tjk
SL ArmSri
MrtMor SKN
UgaSud
CdI
Hai
CDRMli Phi
Geo Ven
Mad India
Camb
Tim Tkm
SS
GuB Aze
Cmr Nga Idn
Pak
Lao
Ban

0
0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.3 Affluence and public health expenditures. Public health expenditures: share of
GDP. 2014. Data source: United Nations Development Program (UNDP), “Human Development
Data.” GDP per capita: see Figure 1.2. 2014. Three small, rich city-​states (Andorra, Luxembourg,
Singapore) and four small island nations that have very high health expenditures are omitted. The line
is a loess curve, calculated with eight oil-​rich nations excluded.

9%
Swa
Public education expenditures

Den
Nam
Tim Swe
Mol Nor
Bol Fin
Mwi CR Ice
Ner
Kyr Ukr Brb Mlt
Moz Cyp
Viet NZ Bel
Cog
Bez Tun
Gha
Hon JamSAf
Bhu Bra
Mly
Isr
Svn UK Aus Ire
Sen
Ken Fr Nth
Bdi Asl
Can
Com MaldMex
SVG Por US
Rwa
Van Par
CV BlrLat
Mus Ger Oma Swi
Afg
Tgo SL
CdI MngCol
Nep Pol
Lit
Est
BF
Eth
Dji
Nic ChlHun Kor
Ben
Mli Ser Uru Cze Sp
Lao Ecu CroRus
Tjk Fji Tha
STP
Svk It
India Per Ja Bru
Gin
TzaPhiES Alb Bul Sey HK
MrtGuy Idn Pan
Cmr Tkm Rom
Cha Irn
SL Gua
Lbr
Gam
Pak Leb
Aze Bahr
GuB
CDR
Uga Arm
Mad
Camb
BanGeo
Zim
Sri
CAR
1 SS

0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.4 Affluence and public education expenditures. Public education

expenditures: share of GDP. 2010–​2014. Data source: United Nations Development Program
(UNDP), “Human Development Data.” GDP per capita: see Figure 1.2. 2010. Three small, rich city-​
states (Andorra, Luxembourg, Singapore) and two small island nations that have very high education
expenditures are omitted. The line is a loess curve, calculated with four oil-​rich nations excluded.

the group or community rather than that of the individual. A “postmaterialist”

or “emancipative” worldview replaces a scarcity orientation.8 One element of
postmaterialism is a desire for basic political rights. Another element is univer-
salistic humanism, which deems all persons, including members of outgroups,
 Source s o f Succe s s f ul Soc i e ti e s 5

9.3 Swe Swi Nor

Viet
Eth Cyp

Importance of democracy
Uru Can
Egy Ger
Uzb Asl Nth
Zim
Zam ItFin
Geo Pol Hun NZ
UK
Arm Mly TT Sp
Kaz
Tur
Rom
Ecu
Idn Mex
Chl Fr
MorTun
Yem
GhaChina
PerTha US
Jor EstKor Ja
ColAlg Lib
Svn
AzeBra
BFPhi Leb Bul
Irq
Kyr
Mol
Nga
PakUkr Irn
Pal
India HK
Rwa
Mli
SAf
Ser
Blr
7.4 Rus

0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.5 Affluence and desire for fairness in politics. Importance of democracy: average
response to the question “How important is it for you to live in a country that is governed
democratically?,” with 1 indicating “not at all important” and 10 indicating “absolutely important.”
2005–​2014. Data source: World Values Survey. GDP per capita: see Figure 1.2. 2005. Three small, rich
city-​states (Andorra, Luxembourg, Singapore) and Haiti are omitted. The line is a linear regression
line, calculated with two oil-​rich nations excluded.

as equally worthy of rights, opportunities, and respect. In the world’s rich na-
tions, the shift from a traditional orientation to a postmaterialist one emerged in
the generation that grew up after the Great Depression and World War II.9 As the
rest of the world gets richer, we’re beginning to observe it there too.10
We can see the growing embrace of fairness when we compare nations that
have varying levels of economic affluence. The richer the nation, the more im-
portant people tend to say it is “to live in a country that is governed democrat-
ically,” as Figure 1.5 shows. Similarly, a much larger portion of the populace in
higher-​income nations disagrees that “when jobs are scarce, men should have
more right to a job than women,” as we see in Figure 1.6.11 And Figure 1.7 shows
a similar pattern when respondents are asked whether “when jobs are scarce,
employers should give priority to [native-​born] people over immigrants.”
A third shift that comes with affluence is a growing emphasis on personal
liberty. Most of us want the freedom to choose what to believe, how to behave,
with whom to live, and so on. As material well-​being increases, this desire for
freedom comes to the fore.12
Here too we can observe the progress by looking across countries. Figure 1.8
shows that in richer nations more people consider religion, which tends to re-
strict our beliefs and behaviors, to be not very important in their life.13 More
people say divorce is justifiable, as Figure 1.9 shows. And more people view ho-
mosexuality as justifiable, as we see in Figure 1.10.
 94% Swe

Women have equal right to a job

Nor
Eth
Sp Fin
Svn NZ UKCan
Gua Bra FrAsl Nth
Mex US
Uru
Per
Col HunTT
Ser Swi
Ger
It
Chl Est
Zim Ecu Pol
Zam Bul Cyp
Blr
UkrSAf
GhaGeo
China Rus HK
VietIdn Tha
Mol
Hai Leb
Rom
Rwa
BF Arm
Mor
Uzb Kaz
India
Kyr
MliPal AlgTur Kor
Pak
Phi
Nga
Irq Irn Mly Lib
Tun
Yem Jor Ja
Egy
9 Aze

0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.6 Affluence and desire for fairness for women. Women have equal right to a
job: share not disagreeing that “when jobs are scarce, men should have more right to a job than
women.” Other response options: agree, neither agree nor disagree. 2005–​2014. Data source: World
Values Survey. GDP per capita: see Figure 1.2. 2005. Three small, rich city-​states (Andorra,
Luxembourg, Singapore) are omitted. The line is a linear regression line, calculated with two oil-​rich
nations excluded.
Immigrants have equal right to a job

74% Swe

Nor

Fr Can

Nth
UK
Ger Swi
Uzb Sp
Eth Ser NZ Fin
Asl
UruMex
Tur US
Rwa SAf
Tha
BFPak It
Zim Ukr Bra Chl Svn
China Bul
Blr Pol
Kyr
Gha
Zam Per
Ecu
Col Rom Mly
Mor
Nga
Viet Rus
Gua
India
Arm
Mol
Phi Est TT Cyp
MliGeo Kaz
Yem
Hai Idn Irn HunKor
Lib
Ja HK
2 Jor
Egy
Aze

0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.7 Affluence and desire for fairness for immigrants. Immigrants have equal right to
a job: share disagreeing that “when jobs are scarce, employers should give priority to [native-​born]
people over immigrants.” Other response options: agree, neither agree nor disagree. 2005–​2014.
Data source: World Values Survey. GDP per capita: see Figure 1.2. 2005. Three small, rich city-​states
(Andorra, Luxembourg, Singapore) are omitted. The line is a linear regression line, calculated with two
oil-​rich nations excluded.
 97% China
Ja
Est Swe
Svn SpFr Nth Nor
Rus Ger
Asl
Blr Hun Fin Swi
Bul
UruKaz NZ UK
Chl Kor
UkrSer

Not very religious

Mol Can
Uzb Aze It
Kyr
Rwa Bahr US
India Pol
Per Bra
Rom Cyp
Leb
SAf
ThaMex
ArmCol

Ecu Tur

Zam Irn TT
Eth
Zim Gua Irq Mly
BFGeo
Phi
Mor
Pak
Nga
Mli
Gha JorAlg
Yem Egy
Tun
Idn Lib
1
0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.8 Affluence and desire for freedom in personal beliefs. Not very religious: share
of the population responding other than “very important” to the question “For each of the following,
indicate how important it is in your life: religion.” Other response options: rather important, not very
important, not at all important. 2005–​2014. Data source: World Values Survey. GDP per capita: see
Figure 1.2. 2005. Three small, rich city-​states (Andorra, Luxembourg, Singapore) are omitted. The line
is a loess curve, calculated with three oil-​rich nations excluded.

Swe
8
Uru Svn Sp
Nth Nor
Chl Asl
Divorce is justifiable

Fr Swi
NZ Fin
Bul
Bra CypUK
Ger US
RusEst Ja
Hun Can
UkrBlr
EgySer Pol It
Mli Per Mex
Gua Kaz
Mol SAf
Hai
Zam Kor
MorColAlg
Phi IrqLeb
Rom TT
GeoEcu
Yem
BFChinaTun
Tha Lib
Zim Aze Tur
Irn
Uzb
Kyr
Eth IdnJor
Arm Mly
RwaNga
Gha
Pak
2 India

0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.9 Affluence and desire for freedom in personal behavior: divorce. Divorce is
justifiable: average response to the question “Please tell me for each of the following actions whether
you think it can always be justified, never be justified, or something in between: divorce,” where 1
indicates “never justified” and 10 indicates “always justified.” 2005–​2014. Data source: World Values
Survey. GDP per capita: see Figure 1.2. 2005. Three small, rich city-​states (Andorra, Luxembourg,
Singapore) are omitted. The line is a loess curve, calculated with two oil-​rich nations excluded.
8 So cial De mo cr atic Capitalism

Swe
8 Nth Nor

Homosexuality is justifiable
Swi
Sp
Asl
Fr
Uru
Fin
NZ Ger
Chl UKCan
Svn US
Ja
Ser
Phi Bra
SAf Mex Hun
Bul HK
Cyp
Per
Hai Col Pol It
Gua Leb EstKor
Mli Ecu Tha
Zam Ukr Rus
Mol BlrRomMly
China Alg Kaz
Kyr
BFNga Irq
Viet
Zim Lib
TT
Uzb
India
Eth
RwaPak
Pal
Yem Tur
Irn
Gha Idn
Mor
Geo
Arm Aze
Tun
1
0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.10 Affluence and desire for freedom in personal behavior: homosexuality.
Homosexuality is justifiable: average response to the question “Please tell me for each of the
following actions whether you think it can always be justified, never be justified, or something in
between: homosexuality,” where 1 indicates “never justified” and 10 indicates “always justified.” 2005–​
2014. Data source: World Values Survey. GDP per capita: see Figure 1.2. 2005. Three small, rich city-​
states (Andorra, Luxembourg, Singapore) are omitted. The line is a loess curve.

These advances in freedom aren’t without cost. As people come to value

freedom more heavily, more choose to divorce or not to marry, so fewer children
grow up with two parents.14 And as religion fades, a key source of community
weakens.15 But these developments do enhance individual liberty.
People’s value orientations tend to be established in their teen and early
adult years and then persist through the rest of their lives, so at the societal level
changes in attitudes often happen slowly, via new cohorts replacing older ones.
Even so, the attitude shifts are clearly visible in the cross-​country patterns in
Figures 1.2 through 1.10. Researchers also find them when comparing across
cohorts within countries and when examining changes over time in the few na-
tions for which attitudinal data are available over a lengthy period of time.16
When a country’s economic performance weakens, such as during recessions,
the rise in support for public insurance, fairness, and personal freedom some-
times stalls or even reverses. However, such backsliding tends to be temporary.17
Together, affluence, its causes (markets, stable and supportive government,
and science), and its consequences (desire for more insurance, fairness, and per-
sonal freedom) have produced societies that are not only richer but also more
secure, better educated, healthier, fairer, and freer. Let’s take a look at some of the
evidence that makes this clear.18
A common way to measure the extent of poverty or material deprivation in
different countries is to pick a minimally-​acceptable income level and calculate
 Source s o f Succe s s f ul Soc i e ti e s 9

99% Bdi
Mad
Mwi
Tim
Ner
Lbr
SL
Cog
Moz
Tza
Mli
Gin
GuB
BF
CAR
STP
Rwa Nga
Tgo
Ben
Les
Uga
Zam
EthIndia
Sen
Ban
PNG
SILao
Ken
Cha
CDR
NepSS
Pak
CdI Swa
YemIdn
Hai
Gam
Cmr
Zim
Sud
Van
Dji Egy
Kir
Kyr Nam
Gha
Phi
Tjk
Com Mrt
Mic Irq
Geo SAf
Poverty Arm
Viet
Hon
CV
Bhu
Bot
Mald Gab
Sri
Fji
China
Mor
Tuv Gua
Nic
ESAlb Mex
Sam Col Ven
Tun
Bol Ecu
Ton Per
Mng
Mol JamDR
Mac
Alg Rom
Par Bra
Jor Pan
Mus Kaz
Tha
CR TurChl Mly
SerBulIrn
Ukr Mon Uru
AzeLatSey
Blr Lit
Cro
Pol
Rus Grc Isr
BH Leb Hun EstSvkPor
KorSp ItFrIce
0 Cze
Mlt
Svn Ja
UK
Cyp Can
FinSwe
Aus
Asl
Den
Bel
Ger NthUS Swi
Ire Nor

0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.11 Affluence and a decent income floor. Poverty: share of persons living in a
household with an income less than $5.50 per day. Incomes adjusted for inflation and converted to
2011 US dollars using purchasing power parities. Average over 2004–​2015. Data source: World Bank.
GDP per capita: see Figure 1.2. 2010. Three small, rich city-​states (Andorra, Luxembourg, Singapore)
are omitted. The line is a loess curve.

the share of the population that lives in households with an income below that
level. Figure 1.11 shows that if we use $5.50 per day as the threshold, many low-​
income nations have very high poverty rates, while high-​income nations have
virtually no poverty. Figure 1.12 shows that school completion tends to be
greater in higher-​income countries. In Figures 1.13 and 1.14, we see a similarly
strong relationship for life expectancy and for homicides.19
Fairness outcomes also improve. Richer nations tend to be more dem-
ocratic, as Figure 1.15 shows. Women in more affluent countries tend to be
better off on measures of inclusion, justice, and security, as we see in Figure
1.16. Figure 1.17 shows that immigrants are much happier with their lives in
richer countries.
Finally, not only do people want more freedom as their societies become
wealthier; they often get it. Researchers at a libertarian think tank, the Cato
Institute, have compiled data on an assortment of freedoms, including the rule
of law, security and safety, freedom of movement, religious freedom, freedom
of association, freedom of expression and information, and freedom of identity
and relationships. Figure 1.18 shows that a composite index reflecting these per-
sonal freedoms tends to rise with countries’ GDP per capita.
The formula for progress, then, is straightforward: Put in place the
prerequisites for sustained economic growth. Get richer. This brings pressure
(from individuals and from organizations representing them, such as labor
unions) for government services and supports, for fairness, and for personal
10 So cial De mo cr atic Capitalism

14
UK Can
Ger
Asl USSwi
Lit Isr Den Nor
Pala EstCze NZ Ja Swe Ire
Geo Svk Kor Ice
Uzb
Mol Blr
LatPol Svn
Rus
Hun
Kaz Cyp Nth
Fr Bel HK
Arm Mon
Ukr AzeCro Fin Aus
Kyr Sri
Ser Bul Bhs
Rom TT It
Fji
Bez
TjkSam SAf Brb Grc
Jor Tkm Pan ChlMly
Mng Sp
Jam Alb
Phi SL Mac Ven Sey Bahr SAr UAE
Education Pal BH PerBotMusAB Por
Gren
SVGLebCR
Mex Uru
Bru
GuyEcu Sur SKN
Bol
Par
Viet Dom
IdnDR Gab
ThaTur Oma
Kir
Zim Bra
Alg
China
Col
GhaSwa
Zam TunLib
Egy Kuw
Nic Nam Irq
ES
CDRKen Cog
Hon
Cmr
Mad GuaMald
India
TzaNga
Uga
SI EG
Hai
BanLao
Pak
CdI Mor
SS
Camb
Tgo CV
Mwi
Lbr
Tim
CAR
Nep
Rwa
Afg
Ben
SLSudBhu
Moz
Bdi
GuB
Sen
Eth
Gin
Cha
Mli
Ner
BF
1
0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.12 Affluence and education. Education: average years of schooling completed. 2015.
Data source: United Nations Development Program (UNDP), “Human Development Data.” GDP
per capita: see Figure 1.2. 2015. Three small, rich city-​states (Andorra, Luxembourg, Singapore) are
omitted. The line is a loess curve, calculated with eight oil-​rich nations excluded.

84 Sp
IsrIt Ja Ice
Asl
HK
Swi
Chl NZFr Can
Kor Swe
AusNth Ire Nor
Por
Grc Svn UKBel
Fin Ger
Cyp Den
CR
Leb US Bru
Cze
Alb
Dom Pan Pol
Cro
Mald
BH MexUru
Mon Est
Svk Oma Bahr UAE
Viet
Nic JamEcu
SL MacBrbTurAB
China Bhs
Hun
Arm Sri
Tun
Geo
MorJor Ser
PerAlg
Bra
Tha
Ven Rom
MusSKN
Bul LatMly SAr Kuw
Col
Life expectancy

Sam
CV
Hon
Pal ES
Par
SVG DR
Gren Lit
Sey
Pala
Ban
MolGua Lib Blr
Kyr Ukr Egy SurAze Rus TT
Nep Fji
Bez
BhuMngIrq
TjkUzb Kaz
Camb
Tim Bol Idn
SIIndia
Phi
Sen
Kir Lao
PakGuy
Tza Nam TkmGab
Mad
Rwa
Eth Bot
Mwi Sud
Hai Cog
NerKen
Gha
Lbr
Zam
Afg
Tgo
Ben
Zim
Gin
Uga
CDR
BF
Mli
SAf EG
Bdi
SS
Moz
GuBCmr
Nga
Cha
CdI
CAR
SL
Swa
48
0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.13 Affluence and life expectancy. Life expectancy: years at birth. 2015. Data
source: United Nations Development Program (UNDP), “Human Development Data.” GDP per
capita: see Figure 1.2. 2015. Three small, rich city-​states (Andorra, Luxembourg, Singapore) are
omitted. The line is a loess curve, calculated with eight oil-​rich nations excluded.

freedoms. Together, changes in material well-​being and in popular attitudes im-

prove the likelihood of good outcomes.
Achieving sustained economic growth has proved difficult for many of the
world’s poorer nations. A key challenge for social scientists is to improve our un-
derstanding of how to kick-​start and sustain economic growth.20 In the past several
 Source s o f Succe s s f ul Soc i e ti e s 11

38 Les
Jam
Bez SKN
SAf
Gua
Bhs
Col
SVG TT
Bra

Homicides Guy
Tuv
SL

Swa
Nam DR Pan
Mex
Bot
CAR SS
CDR
Uga Bol
Nic
CdI
Mrt AB
PNG CV CR
Cog
MliNga
Hai
GuB Phi
Eri
Gam
Tgo
Cha Sur
Gab Rus
Gin
Eth Par
Dom
Ecu Brb
Tza
Sen
Com
KirPakMng
Lao GrenIrq UruKaz
Dji
ZimYem
Afg
Sud
Ben Per SAr
Ken
Zam Lit
Rwa
Mic
Ner MI UkrTkmTha Irn
Cub
Tur
Leb
Bdi
Tim
MozKyr
STP
LbrUzb
Sam
Mol
India Alb
Egy MonBlrLat
ChlEst EG US
Van
Nep
Ban
Cmr Bhu
Geo Tun
Fji
Sri Pala
Jor Mus
Aze Sey Lib
SL
Camb
Mwi
Gha
Tjk Arm
Viet BH Mac
Alg
Ser Bul
Rom Mly
Hun Isr
Mlt Bel
Fin
Can
BF Mor Mald
TonChina CroPolSvkPor
Svn
Cze NZ
Kor Sp ItFrIce
JaUK Den
Asl
Swe
Ger Oma
Ire
NthHK SwiUAE Nor
0 Mad Pal Idn Grc Cyp Bahr
Aus

0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.14 Affluence and safety. Homicides: per 100,000 population. 2010–​2014. Data
source: United Nations Development Program (UNDP), “Human Development Data.” GDP per
capita: see Figure 1.2. 2010. Three small, rich city-​states (Andorra, Luxembourg, Singapore) and three
very-​high-​homicide countries (El Salvador, Honduras, Venezuela) are omitted. The line is a loess
curve, calculated with eight oil-​rich nations excluded.

10 CV MngCRMus Uru
Chl Lit
Hun
Grc
Pol
Por
Svk
SvnTTSp
Cyp ItNZ
JaFin Ger
UK CanNth IreSwi
Swe
Den
Aus
Asl Nor
Ken
Mol
India
Jam
Par Mac
Idn
PSAf
AlberMon Rom
BulPan EstCze
Cro Fr
Gha
SI
Tim Gua
Phi
ES Ser Mex Lat
Bra
Bot Kor Bel US
Kyr
SL
Sen
BenHon
Pak
Nga
Guy
Geo
Bol Tun
Col
DR
Mwi
Mad
Lbr
GuB
Nep
BF
CAR Nic Nam
Zam Leb
Sri Irq Isr
Moz
CDRMli Bhu
Ner ArmEcu Sur Mly
Gin
CdI Ukr
Zim Ven Rus
Democracy

Tza Gab
Camb Fji Alg
Ban
0 SS Lib
Bdi
Uga
Afg
Tgo
Cha
Eth
Rwa
Tjk Jor Tha
Sud
Cmr Mor
Cog Egy Tur

KazEG
Lao
Viet China
Blr
Aze Kuw
Tkm Oma UAE
Uzb
Swa
−10 Bahr SAr

0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.15 Affluence and democracy. Democracy: higher values indicate more democratic.
Scale is −10 to +10. 2016. Data source: HumanProgress, “Democracy versus Autocracy Over Time,”
using data from Polity IV Annual Time-​Series. GDP per capita: see Figure 1.2. 2015. Three small, rich
city-​states (Andorra, Luxembourg, Singapore) are omitted. The line is a loess curve, calculated with
seven oil-​rich nations excluded.

decades there has been considerable progress: for the first time, poorer countries
containing a large portion of the world’s population—​particularly China and India
but some others as well—​have been growing rapidly. During this period more
people have escaped poverty than ever before in human history.21
 Women, peace, and security index
.89 Ice
Swi Nor
Svn Sp Fin Can Nth
Swe
UKBelDen
Ger
Aus
Por NZFr Asl Ire
Ser EstCypKor
Cro Pol US
Lat LitCze It Ja
MacMonBlr Svk
Jam Mng Grc
Ecu Bul Kaz TT
Hun UAE
Nam
BH
UzbGeo
Lao SAfCR RomRus
Nic
Bol AlbDRSur Uru
Mus Chl Bahr
ZimGhaPhi
ParP er Pan
Kyr
Tjk Bez
ES Bra Mex
Ven
Tkm Isr
Tza
NepHon
Mol China
Idn
Viet Tun Tha Mly Kuw
Rwa
Camb
Uga GuaArm Col
Sri Bot SAr
Tgo Ukr
Eth
MozKen BhuJor Aze
ZamMor
Hai Tur
Sen
BF Mald
CdI
Bdi Alg
Mwi
Lbr
Ban
BenNga Gab
Mad
Gin India
Swa
SL CogEgy
Cha
Cmr Leb
Ner
Sud
Mli Irq
CDR
CAR
Pak

.38 Afg

0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.16 Affluence and women’s well-​being. Women, peace, and security index: a
composite measure of inclusion (economic, social, political), justice (formal laws and informal
discrimination), and security (family, community, societal) via 11 indicators. Scale is 0 to 1. Data
source: Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace, and Security and Peace Research Institute of Oslo,
Women, Peace, and Security Index 2017–​18. GDP per capita: see Figure 1.2. 2015. Three small, rich
city-​states (Andorra, Luxembourg, Singapore) are omitted. The line is a loess curve, calculated with
five oil-​rich nations excluded.

7.7 Fin
Den
Ice Nor
Immigrants’ life satisfaction

NZ Asl
CanSwe Swi
Mex NthUS
Isr AusIre
Oma
CR UK Bel UAE
Chl Mlt Ja
Ecu PanUru Cyp Fr Ger
BahrSAr
Ven Sp
Par Cze It
Bez Blr PolSvkPor
Svn
Uzb Tkm Rus
Tur Mly
Zam BH Jor Cro
Kaz
Mol Egy DR Hun Grc
Lib
Cmr Mon Leb Lit
Nga Ser Irq
TjkPak Mac Est HK
Kyr
Nep
Mrt SAfAze Lat
CDR Pal
SLYemUkr BotGab
India
Sen
Lbr
Mli
Zim Cog
Cha
Mwi
Sud
Uga
Ken
BF
Dji Arm
Afg
Ner
Ben
Gin
Com SSGeo
CdI
Rwa

3.5 Tgo

0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.17 Affluence and immigrants’ well-​being. Immigrant life satisfaction: average
response to the question “Please imagine a ladder, with steps numbered from 0 at the bottom to 10
at the top. The top of the ladder represents the best possible life for you and the bottom of the ladder
represents the worst possible life for you. On which step of the ladder would you say you personally
feel you stand at this time?” 2005–​2017. Data source: Gallup World Poll, via the World Happiness
Report 2018, online appendix. GDP per capita: see Figure 1.2. 2015. Three small, rich city-​states
(Andorra, Luxembourg, Singapore) are omitted. The line is a loess curve, calculated with six oil-​rich
nations excluded.
 Source s o f Succe s s f ul Soc i e ti e s 13

9.5 Fin Den

NZ Bel
Aus
Nth
Swe Swi
Nor
Asl
Ger
Can Ire
Por
Cze JaUK Ice
Svn
Est
Pol
Svk
Lit Kor
Sp US
HK
RomLat Cyp It Fr
Cro
Uru
CV CRBul Hun
Mon Chl

Personal freedom
Grc
Sey
BHSerSur Isr
Gha GeoAlb
Fji Mus
Pan
Mwi
Ben Mng
EcuSAf Bhs
BF Per
Nep Nam
Camb Mac
Brb
SL
Mad
Hai Jam
Bol
GuB MolArm
CdI
ES
Par Col Mex
Bra
TT
Moz Bot
Sen
RwaCog Bhu
Guy IdnDR Tur
Tun
Tgo Ukr
Swa
Gua
Phi
India Kaz
Lbr Bez
Tza
Ken
Kyr MorJor Tha
Hon
Nic
Zam Bru
Uga Viet Leb
TjkLao Mly Bahr
Mli Aze
Ven
Ner
CAR
Tim China Rus Kuw
Ban
Cha Oma
Gin Nga
EthPak SriAlg
Zim Gab UAE
CDRCmr
Bdi SAr

3.8 EgyLib

0 $70k
GDP per capita

Figure 1.18 Affluence and personal freedom. Personal freedom: average score for rule of law,
security and safety, freedom of movement, religious freedom, freedom of association, freedom of
expression and information, and freedom of identity and relationships. Scale is 0 to 10. 2015. Data
source: Ian Vasquez and Tanja Porcnik, The Human Freedom Index, Cato Institute. GDP per capita: see
Figure 1.2. 2015. Three small, rich city-​states (Andorra, Luxembourg, Singapore) are omitted. The line
is a loess curve, calculated with seven oil-​rich nations excluded.

While affluence makes progress in other areas more likely, it isn’t a precondi-
tion. An equally important challenge for social scientists, therefore, is to figure
out ways to speed up the implementation of services, cushions, fairness, and
freedom even before nations become rich.22 How can we get more children in
good schools for longer? How can we improve health outcomes before a fully
modern healthcare system is in place? How can we reduce deep poverty in ad-
vance of full-​scale national affluence?
Along with addressing climate change and other existential threats, these
tasks are the most important ones facing researchers and policy makers, because
they affect a large share of the world’s people, including its least well-​off.
However, they aren’t our only challenge. For all of their achievements, the
world’s rich democratic countries have progressed unevenly toward the good
society. These twenty or so nations are similar to one another in some of their
institutions and policies, but they also vary quite a bit. And while it isn’t always
easy to spot in the charts we’ve looked at so far, they differ significantly on an
array of outcomes.
What, according to these countries’ experience, is the configuration of
institutions and policies most conducive to human flourishing? The histor-
ical and comparative evidence suggests that the answer is social democratic
capitalism.
14 So cial De mo cr atic Capitalism

Social Democratic Capitalism

Social democratic capitalism consists of democracy, capitalism, education, a big
welfare state, and high employment. All rich longstanding-​democratic nations
have the first three of these—​democratic political systems, capitalist economies,
and good-​quality K–​12 schooling. What sets social democratic capitalism apart
is the addition of expansive and generous public insurance programs along with
aggressive promotion of high employment via public services and modest rather
than stringent regulation of product and labor markets.
In Part 1 of this book, I examine social democratic capitalism and its per-
formance. What has it achieved? To what extent does it suffer from tradeoffs?
Up to now, social democratic capitalism’s chief practitioners have been the
Nordic countries: Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Is its success gen-
eralizable beyond the Nordics? Are there alternatives that can do as well or
better?
Chapter 2 looks at the experience of the Nordics and other rich democratic
nations. Joining democracy, capitalism, and education together with a big wel-
fare state and high employment has brought the Nordic countries a better
standard of living for their least well-​off members, greater income security, and
very likely more equality of opportunity. And they have gotten these results
without sacrificing economic growth, freedom, health, happiness, or any of a
large number of other outcomes we want in a good society.
Skeptics discount the Nordics’ success on the presumption that these nations
have some unique feature that allows them, and only them, to reap the benefits
of social democratic policies without suffering tradeoffs. Versions of this story
identify the Nordics’ secret weapon as an immutable work ethic, superior in-
telligence, trust, solidarity, small population size, ethnic homogeneity, institu-
tional coherence, effective government, corporatism, a willingness to be taxed,
tax compliance, strong labor unions, or low income inequality. I examine these
hypotheses in Chapter 3. None holds up to close inspection.
Is there a small-​government set of institutions and policies that can match
the success of social democratic capitalism? Some believe there is. It consists
of low government spending and taxes, strong families and voluntary organiza-
tions, private rather than public services, and public transfer programs heavily
targeted to the least well-​off. As I document in Chapter 4, the experience of the
affluent democratic nations over the past half century hasn’t been friendly to
this hypothesis. Countries with smaller government haven’t achieved faster eco-
nomic growth. Families and voluntary organizations are sometimes less effective
and efficient than government programs, they by nature aren’t comprehensive in
coverage, and they’ve been weakening over time. They also are nearly or equally
as prominent in nations with a big government as in those with a smaller one.
 Source s o f Succe s s f ul Soc i e ti e s 15

Private provision of services should be welcomed, even embraced, but it is most

effective as a complement to public provision rather than a substitute. Relying
on heavily targeted government transfers can work, but it may be politically sus-
tainable only in a country with a strong egalitarian ethos, such as Australia. Even
there, it hasn’t matched the success of social democratic capitalism.
Universal basic income has emerged as a prominent alternative to social dem-
ocratic capitalism, championed mainly by those on the political left but also by
some on the right. We have very little evidence to look to in evaluating the at-
tractiveness of this proposal. What, then, should we make of it? I consider this
question in Chapter 5.

Social Democratic America

Part 2 of the book focuses on the United States. The United States is by far the
largest of the affluent democratic nations, with about one-​third of their total pop-
ulation.23 Despite being one of the richest in this group, it is among the countries
that are farthest from the good society. Too few ordinary Americans have ade-
quate economic security, too few who grow up in disadvantaged circumstances
are able to reach the middle class, and too few see their boat lifted when the ec-
onomic tide rises. I detail the nature and extent of these problems in Chapter 6.
In Chapter 7 I suggest remedies. The problems are big ones, but they are not
intractable. The key to a solution? Social democratic capitalism. While we have
gradually expanded the size and scope of our public insurance programs and
employment-​enhancing services over the past century, we need to do more.
I offer recommendations to add or improve health insurance, paid parental
leave, a child allowance, unemployment insurance and wage insurance, sickness
insurance, disability assistance, social assistance, pensions, eldercare, housing
assistance, early education, apprenticeships, college, affirmative action, full em-
ployment, the minimum wage, the Earned Income Tax Credit, profit sharing,
infrastructure and public spaces, and paid vacation days and holidays. After
outlining the details for each of these, I turn to how much it will cost and how
to pay for it.
Can it happen? I predict yes. In Chapter 8 I explain why. The notion that the
United States will further increase the size and scope of its welfare state may
seem blind to the reality of contemporary American politics, but a different pic-
ture emerges when we step back and consider the long run. The lesson of the
past one hundred years is that as the country gets richer, we are willing to spend
more in order to safeguard against loss and enhance fairness. Advances in social
policy come only intermittently, but they do come. And when they come, they
usually last. Building a social democratic America doesn’t require a radical break
16 So cial De mo cr atic Capitalism

from our historical path. It simply requires continuing along that path. In all like-
lihood, that is exactly what we will do.
America has come a long way on the road to the good society, but we have
many miles yet to travel. Happily, our history and the experiences of other rich
nations show us the way forward. The United States is a much better country
today than it was a century ago, and a key part of the reason is that government
does more to ensure economic security, opportunity, and shared prosperity now
than it did then. In the future it will do more still, and we’ll be the better for it.
 PA RT 1

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC
CAPITALISM
 2

Social Democratic Capitalism and

the Good Society

Social democratic capitalism consists of political democracy plus capitalism plus

education plus a big welfare state plus high employment. The experience of the
world’s affluent nations suggests that this set of institutions and policies is the
most likely to yield a coupling of democracy and liberty with income security, a
good standard of living for the least well-​off, and equality of opportunity.
What exactly is social democratic capitalism? Which nations have embraced
it? What is the evidence that it yields good outcomes? Does getting those
outcomes require sacrificing other features of a good society? If social dem-
ocratic capitalism has worked well up to now, will it continue to do so going
forward?

Social Democratic Capitalism

Social democratic capitalism has six core elements1:

1. Democracy in the political sphere

2. Capitalism: private ownership and markets
3. Basic education: good-​quality K–​12 schooling
4. Expansive, generous public insurance programs
5. Employment-​oriented public services: early education, affordable college,
retraining, job placement assistance, individualized monitoring and support,
lifelong learning
6. Modest regulation of product and labor markets

The first, second, and third of these are common to all of the world’s rich
longstanding-​democratic nations. Each has a democratic polity, a market-​
oriented economy with extensive private ownership of firms, and good-​quality

19
20 Part 1: So cial De mo cr atic Capitalism

universal primary and secondary schooling. When it comes to the fourth, fifth,
and sixth elements, there is greater variation. Every affluent democratic country
has a welfare state, but their expansiveness and generosity differ significantly.
Employment-​oriented public services and modest product and labor market
regulations aim to boost employment, and these too vary widely across countries.
The leading practitioners of social democratic capitalism are the Nordic na-
tions. Denmark and Sweden have embraced this model since roughly the 1970s.
Norway has too, but its performance on many outcomes is advantaged by its
substantial oil wealth, so we should be cautious in drawing inferences from the
Norwegian experience. Finland is a relative latecomer in embracing the full
gamut of social democratic policies, so it too isn’t quite as useful as Denmark
and Sweden in assessing the model.
Social democratic political parties in the Nordic countries have been the
prime movers in the adoption of this set of institutions and policies, and it’s for
this reason that I use the term “social democratic capitalism.”2 Others might
prefer a different label, such as “social capitalism,” “social investment capitalism,”
or “flexicurity.”3
Figures 2.1 through 2.4 help us to see countries’ positioning on the fourth,
fifth, and sixth elements of social democratic capitalism. On the horizontal axis
of Figure 2.1 is a measure of the expansiveness and generosity of public insur-
ance programs: government social expenditures as a share of gross domestic
product (GDP). I make a small adjustment for the size of the nation’s elderly
population and its unemployment rate, because spending is affected not only
by the structure and reach of a country’s programs but also by the share of the
population that needs them.4 Countries on the right side of the chart tend to
have a more generous and/​or expansive welfare state. These include the Nordic
nations plus the continental European countries Austria, France, Belgium, the
Netherlands, and Germany. Norway’s position is somewhat misleading: its very
large GDP (the denominator in the measure) pushes it farther to the left than it
ought to be.
On the vertical axis of Figure 2.1 is a measure of countries’ use of employment-​
promoting government services: spending on active labor market policies such
as retraining and job placement and on programs like early education and paid
parental leave that help parents balance family commitments with paid work.
These kinds of services encourage more people, particularly women and parents,
to enter employment, they help persons who lose a job to prepare for and find
another one, and they serve as a direct source of jobs for teachers, trainers,
caseworkers, and others. Here Denmark and Sweden stand out, followed by
Finland and Norway along with France, Belgium, Austria, Ireland, and the UK.5
Figure 2.2’s horizontal axis has the same measure of public insurance expan-
siveness and generosity as in Figure 2.1. On its vertical axis is a measure of the
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MP25034.
Fury / Impala / Galaxie 500 comparison. 18 min., sd., color, Super
8 mm. Appl. au.: Ross Roy, Inc. © Chrysler Corporation; 3Dec73;
MP25034.

MP25035.
Dart and Duster comparison with Nova and Maverick. 18 min., sd.,
color, Super 8 mm. Appl. au.: Ross Roy, Inc. © Chrysler
Corporation; 26Dec73; MP25035.

MP25036.
Duster / Valiant / Nova / Maverick comparison. 18 min., sd., color,
Super 8 mm. Appl. au.: Ross Roy, Inc. © Chrysler Corporation;
3Dec73; MP25036.

MP25037.
VD attack plan. Walt Disney Productions. 16 min., sd., color, 16
mm. © Walt Disney Productions; 27Feb73 (in notice: 1972);
MP25037.
MP25038.
I’m no fool with electricity. Walt Disney Productions. 8 min., sd.,
color, 16 mm. © Walt Disney Productions; 26Oct73; MP25038.

MP25039.
Geothermal power. 15 min., sd., color, 16 mm. Appl. au.: Howard
J. Lindenmeyer. © Howlin Cinema Productions; 1Feb74; MP25039.

MP25040.
Kiel Olympiad. Offshore Productions. Produced in cooperation
with the United States International Sailing Association, Yacht
Racing Magazine & Yachting Magazine. 56 min., sd., color, 16 mm.
Appl. au.: Dick Enersen & Laszlo Pal. © Enersen/Pal Enterprises;
22Feb73; MP25040.

MP25041.
April showers. 30 sec., sd., color, 16 mm. Appl. au.: William Esty
Company, Inc. © Colgate Palmolive Company; 7Oct73; MP25041.

MP25042.
Deep water rescue breathing. A Pierce production. 10 min., sd.,
color, 16 mm. Appl. au.: Albert L. Pierce. © Albert L. Pierce;
19Sep73; MP25042.

MP25043.
Teacher self appraisal observation system: a technique for
improving instruction. Educational Innovators Press. 17 min., sd.,
b&w, videotape (1/2 inch) (Teacher self appraisal, packet V1) Add.
ti.: Observation system—improving instruction. © Educational
Innovators Press, a division of Multimedia Associates, Inc.;
15May73; MP25043.

MP25044.
 Coding classroom introduction situations utilizing the teacher self
appraisal observation system. Educational Innovators Press. 22 min.,
sd., b&w, videotape (1/2 inch) (Teacher self appraisal, packet V2) ©
Educational Innovators Press, a division of Multimedia Associates,
Inc.; 15May73; MP25044.

MP25045.
Coding classroom discussion situations utilizing the teacher self
appraisal observation system. Educational Innovators Press. 20
min., sd., b&w, videotape (1/2 inch) (Teacher self appraisal, packet
V3) © Educational Innovators Press, a division of Multimedia
Associates, Inc.; 15May73; MP25045.

MP25046.
Coding classroom review situations utilizing the teacher self
appraisal observation system. Educational Innovators Press. 18 min.,
sd., b&w, videotape (1/2 inch) (Teacher self appraisal, packet V4) ©
Educational Innovators Press, a division of Multimedia Associates,
Inc.; 15May73; MP25046.

MP25047.
Coding classroom activities situations utilizing the teacher self
appraisal observation system. Educational Innovators Press. 20
min., sd., b&w, videotape (1/2 inch) (Teacher self appraisal, packet
V5) © Educational Innovators Press, a division of Multimedia
Associates, Inc.; 15May73; MP25047.

MP25048.
Establishing observer reliability with the teacher self appraisal
observation system. Educational Innovators Press. 28 min., sd., b&w,
videotape (1/2 inch) (Teacher self appraisal, packet V6) ©
Educational Innovators Press, a division of Multimedia Associates,
Inc.; 15May73; MP25048.
MP25049.
Now your injector. GSRX3053. 30 sec., sd., color, 16 mm. Appl.
au.: J. Walter Thompson Company. © Gillette a. a. d. o. the Gillette
Company; 18Oct73; MP25049.

MP25050.
Best shave ahead. GSRX3013. 30 sec., sd., color, 16 mm. Appl. au.:
J. Walter Thompson Company. © Gillette a. a. d. o. the Gillette
Company; 18Oct73; MP25050.

MP25051.
The Fundamental theorem. 4 min., si., color, Super 8 mm.
(Calculus in motion) Appl. au.: Bruce Cornwell & Katherine
Cornwell, with editorial assistance by Duane W. Bailey. © Houghton
Mifflin Company; 4May73; MP25051.

MP25052.
Derivatives. 4 min., si., color, Super 8 mm. (Calculus in motion)
Appl. au.: Bruce Cornwell & Katherine Cornwell, with editorial
assistance by Duane W. Bailey. © Houghton Mifflin Company;
27Jun73; MP25052.

MP25053.
Taylor polynomials. 4 min., si., color, Super 8 mm. (Calculus in
motion) Appl. au.: Bruce Cornwell & Katherine Cornwell, with
editorial assistance by Duane W. Bailey. © Houghton Mifflin
Company; 31Jul73; MP25053.

MP25054.
Concavity and points of inflection. 4 min., si., color, Super 8 mm.
(Calculus in motion) Appl. au.: Bruce Cornwell & Katherine
Cornwell, with editorial assistance by Duane W. Bailey. © Houghton
Mifflin Company; 31Jul73; MP25054.
MP25055.
Rolle’s theorem and the mean value theorem. 4 min., si., color,
Super 8 mm. (Calculus in motion) Appl. au.: Bruce Cornwell &
Katherine Cornwell, with editorial assistance by Duane W. Bailey. ©
Houghton Mifflin Company; 6Jul73; MP25055.

MP25056.
Limits. 4 min., si., color, Super 8 mm. (Calculus in motion) Appl.
au.: Bruce Cornwell & Katherine Cornwell, with editorial assistance
by Duane W. Bailey. © Houghton Mifflin Company; 27Jun73;
MP25056.

MP25057.
The Definite integral. 4 min., si., color, Super 8 mm. (Calculus in
motion) Appl. au.: Bruce Cornwell & Katherine Cornwell, with
editorial assistance by Duane W. Bailey. © Houghton Mifflin
Company; 4May73; MP25057.

MP25058.
The Wordworks 1. Houghton Mifflin Company. 11 min., sd., color,
16 mm. © Houghton Mifflin Company; 31Dec73; MP25058.

MP25059.
The Wordworks 2. Houghton Mifflin Company. 11 min., sd., color,
16 mm. © Houghton Mifflin Company; 31Dec73; MP25059.

MP25060.
The Wordworks 3. Houghton Mifflin Company. 11 min., sd., color,
16 mm. © Houghton Mifflin Company; 31Dec73; MP25060.

MP25061.
 The Wordworks 4. Houghton Mifflin Company. 11 min., sd., color,
16 mm. © Houghton Mifflin Company; 31Dec73; MP25061.

MP25062.
Choice not chance — career development in New Jersey. A film by
Videgraphe. 26 min., sd., color, 16 mm. Appl. au.: Robert J. Phillips.
© Videgraphe Corporation; 12Dec73; MP25062.

MP25063.
Bicycle safely. 12 min., sd., color, 16 mm. © Fiesta Films; 28Feb74;
MP25063.

MP25064.
Poetry for fun — dares and dreams. A Centron production. 13 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. © Centron Corporation, Inc.; 13Mar74; MP25064.

MP25065.
Gettysburg — 1863. A Whitefield production. 19 min., sd., color, 16
mm. © Centron Corporation, Inc.; 13Mar74; MP25065.

MP25066.
Laudate. 6 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. Based on Igor Stravinsky’s
Symphony of psalms. Appl. au.: Nicholas Frangakis. © Nicholas
Frangakis; 1Mar74 (in notice: 1973); MP25066.

MP25067.
Repairs to air conditioning condensers. 27 min., sd., color, 16 mm.
© Motors Insurance Corporation; 28Feb74 (in notice: 1973);
MP25067.

MP25068.
 It’s your move, sergeant. Woroner Films. 24 min., sd., color, 16
mm. (Decisions) © Woroner Films, Inc.; 10Jan74 (in notice: 1973);
MP25068.

MP25069.
The Language of medicine. Introd. 12 min., sd., color, videotape
(3/4 inch) in cassette. Appl. au.: Wallace J. Vnuk. © Walfran
Research and Educational Fund; 14Dec73; MP25069.

MP25070.
The Language of medicine. Lesson no. 1. 10 min., sd., color,
videotape (3/4 inch) in cassette. Appl. au.: Wallace J. Vnuk. ©
Walfran Research and Educational Fund; 14Dec73; MP25070.

MP25071.
The Language of medicine. Lesson no. 2. 7 min., sd., color,
videotape (3/4 inch) in cassette. Appl. au.: Wallace J. Vnuk. ©
Walfran Research and Educational Fund; 14Dec73; MP25071.

MP25072.
The Language of medicine. Lesson no. 3. 15 min., sd., color,
videotape (3/4 inch) in cassette. Appl. au.: Wallace J. Vnuk. ©
Walfran Research and Educational Fund; 14Dec73; MP25072.

MP25073.
The Language of medicine. Lesson no. 4. 14 min., sd., color,
videotape (3/4 inch) in cassette. Appl. au.: Wallace J. Vnuk. ©
Walfran Research and Educational Fund; 14Dec73; MP25073.

MP25074.
The Language of medicine. Lesson no. 5. 10 min., sd., color,
videotape (3/4 inch) in cassette. Appl. au.: Wallace J. Vnuk. ©
Walfran Research and Educational Fund; 14Dec73; MP25074.
MP25075.
The Language of medicine. Lesson no. 6. 17 min., sd., color,
videotape (3/4 inch) in cassette. Appl. au.: Wallace J. Vnuk. ©
Walfran Research and Educational Fund; 14Dec73; MP25075.

MP25076.
Feelings. United Methodist Communications. 29 min., videotape
(3/4 inch) in cassette. (Learning to live) © Trafco, Inc.; 15Jan74 (in
notice: 1973); MP25076.

MP25077.
Ego states. United Methodist Communications. 29 min., videotape
(3/4 inch) in cassette. (Learning to live) © Trafco, Inc.; 15Jan74 (in
notice: 1973); MP25077.

MP25078.
Games. United Methodist Communications. 29 min., videotape
(3/4 inch) in cassette. (Learning to live) © Trafco, Inc.; 15Jan74 (in
notice: 1973); MP25078.

MP25079.
Time structures. United Methodist Communications. 29 min.,
videotape (3/4 inch) in cassette. (Learning to live) © Trafco, Inc.;
15Jan74 (in notice: 1973); MP25079.

MP25080.
Scripts “B.” United Methodist Communications. 29 min.,
videotape (3/4 inch) in cassette. (Learning to live) © Trafco, Inc.;
15Jan74 (in notice: 1973); MP25080.

MP25081.
 Scripts “A.” United Methodist Communications. 29 min.,
videotape (3/4 inch) in cassette. (Learning to live) © Trafco, Inc.;
15Jan74 (in notice: 1973); MP25081.

MP25082.
Strokes. United Methodist Communications. 29 min., videotape
(3/4 inch) in cassette. (Learning to live) © Trafco, Inc.; 15Jan74 (in
notice: 1973); MP25082.

MP25083.
Transactions. United Methodist Communications. 29 min.,
videotape (3/4 inch) in cassette. (Learning to live) © Trafco, Inc.;
15Jan74 (in notice: 1973); MP25083.

MP25084.
A Conversation with President Tito. A production of CBS News. 30
min., sd., color, 16 mm. (CBS News special report) © Columbia
Broadcasting System, Inc.; 25Oct71; MP25084.

MP25085.
Search for the Goddess of Love. CBS News. Produced in
association with the Smithsonian Institution. 60 min., sd., color, 16
mm. (Smithsonian adventure) © Columbia Broadcasting System,
Inc.; 13Jun71; MP25085.

MP25086.
The Court and a free press. A production of CBS News. 60 min.,
sd., b&w, 16 mm. (CBS News special report) © Columbia
Broadcasting System, Inc.; 1Jul71; MP25086.

MP25087.
Louis Armstrong: 1900–1971. A production of CBS News. 60 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. (CBS News special) © Columbia Broadcasting
System, Inc.; 9Jul71; MP25087.

MP25088.
The Year 1200. A production of CBS News. 60 min., sd., b&w, 16
mm. (CBS News special) © Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.;
9Aug71 (in notice: 1970); MP25088.

MP25089.
The Chappaquiddick report. A production of CBS News. 30 min.,
sd., b&w, 16 mm. (CBS News special) © Columbia Broadcasting
System, Inc.; 29Apr70; MP25089.

MP25090.
Where we stand in Cambodia. A production of CBS News. 60 min.,
sd., b&w, 16 mm. (CBS News special) © Columbia Broadcasting
System, Inc.; 3May70; MP25090.

MP25091.
The Catholic dilemma. A production of CBS News. 60 min., sd.,
b&w, 16 mm. (CBS News special) © Columbia Broadcasting System,
Inc.; 5Oct70; MP25091.

MP25092.
The Court martial of William Calley. A production of CBS News.
30 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. (CBS News special report) © Columbia
Broadcasting System, Inc.; 29Mar71; MP25092.

MP25093.
The Economy: a new way to go. A production of CBS News. 60
min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. (CBS News special report) © Columbia
Broadcasting System, Inc.; 15Aug71; MP25093.
MP25094.
Reston on China: a conversation with Eric Sevareid. A production
of CBS News. 60 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. (CBS News special report)
© Columbia Broadcasting System., Inc.; 30Aug71; MP25094.

MP25095.
The World of Charlie Company. A production of CBS News. 60
min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. (CBS News special report) © Columbia
Broadcasting System, Inc.; 13Jul70; MP25095.

MP25096.
Voices from the Russian underground. A production of CBS News.
60 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. (CBS News special report) © Columbia
Broadcasting System, Inc.; 27Jul70; MP25096.

MP25097.
Blue Christmas? An inquiry into the state of the economy. A
production of CBS News. 60 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. (CBS News
special report) © Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.; 1Dec70;
MP25097.

MP25098.
Is mercury a menace? A production of CBS News. 30 min., sd.,
b&w, 16 mm. (CBS News special) © Columbia Broadcasting System,
Inc.; 11Jan71; MP25098.

MP25099.
Southern exposures. A production of CBS News. 30 min., sd., b&w,
16 mm. (CBS News special) © Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.;
3May71; MP25099.

MP25100.
 On the road with Charles Kuralt. A production of CBS News. 60
min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. (CBS News special) © Columbia
Broadcasting System, Inc.; 6Sep71; MP25100.

MP25101.
Sixty minutes. Vol. 3, no. 12. A production of CBS News. 60 min.,
sd., b&w, 16 mm. © Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.; 2Mar71;
MP25101.

MP25102.
Sixty minutes. Vol. 4, no. 8. A production of CBS News. 60 min.,
sd., b&w, 16 mm. © Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.; 25Nov71;
MP25102.

MP25103.
Sixty minutes. Vol. 4, no. 9. A production of CBS News. 60 min.,
sd., b&w, 16 mm. © Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.; 28Nov71;
MP25103.

MP25104.
Kids! 53 things to know about health, sex and growing up. A
production of CBS News. 60 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. (CBS News
special) © Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.; 26Jan71; MP25104.

MP25105.
New voices in the South. A production of CBS News. 30 min., sd.,
b&w, 16 mm. (CBS News special) © Columbia Broadcasting System,
Inc.; 8Mar71; MP25105.

MP25106.
Reischauer on Asia. A production of CBS News. 30 min., sd., b&w,
16 mm. (CBS News special) © Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.;
6Jul71; MP25106.
MP25107.
The Correspondents report. Pt. 2: America and the world. A
production of CBS News. 60 min., sd., b&w, 16 mm. (CBS News
special) © Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc.; 30Dec71; MP25107.

MP25108.
Pandora’s box. Perspective Films. 8 min., sd., color, 16 mm. ©
Perspective Films, a division of Esquire, Inc.; 22Jan74; MP25108.

MP25109.
Kyoto: exploring with Larry. A Coronet film. 10 min., sd., color, 16
mm. © Coronet Instructional Media, a division of Esquire, Inc.;
14Jan74; MP25109.

MP25110.
Hong Kong: wandering with Rick. A Coronet film. 10 min., sd.,
color, 16 mm. © Coronet Instructional Media, a division of Esquire,
Inc.; 15Jan74; MP25110.

MP25111.
Ball game. A film by Evelyn Marienberg. 1 min., sd., color, 16 mm.
© Evelyn Marienberg; 15Mar74; MP25111.

MP25112.
To a babysitter. An Alfred Higgins production. 2nd ed. 17 min., sd.,
color, 16 mm. © Alfred Higgins Productions, Inc.; 14Mar74;
MP25112.

MP25113.
Elementary natural science — songbirds. Centron Educational
Films. Produced in collaboration with Centron Corporation. 13 min.,
sd., color, 16 mm. © Centron Corporation, Inc.; 15Mar74; MP25113.
MP25114.
Tornado. 6 min., si., color, Super 8 mm. Appl. au.: Donald D.
Patterson. Prev. reg. 17Dec73, MU8857. © Donald D. Patterson;
20Dec73; MP25114.

MP25115.
Feeding. Sutherland Learning Associates. 10 min., sd., color, Super
8 mm. (Rocom Parentaid film system, parent counseling child care)
Prev. pub. 29Oct70. NM: editorial revision. © Hoffmann LaRoche,
Inc.; 29Jun73; MP25115.

MP25116.
Growth and development, toilet training. Sutherland Learning
Associates. 9 min., sd., color, Super 8 mm. (Rocom Parentaid film
system, parent counseling child care) Prev. pub. 29Oct70. NM:
editorial revision. © Hoffmann LaRoche, Inc.; 29Jun73; MP25116.

MP25117.
Troubles in the digestive tract. Sutherland Learning Associates. 10
min., sd., color, Super 8 mm. (Rocom Parentaid film system, parent
counseling child care) Prev. pub. 29Oct70. NM: editorial revision. ©
Hoffmann LaRoche, Inc.; 29Jun73; MP25117.

MP25118.
Respiratory problems. Sutherland Learning Associates. 9 min., sd.,
color, Super 8 mm. (Rocom Parentaid film system, parent counseling
child care) Prev. pub. 29Oct70. NM: editorial revision. © Hoffmann
LaRoche, Inc.; 29Jun73; MP25118.

MP25119.
Medication and treatment, your child’s eyes. Sutherland Learning
Associates. 8 min., sd., color, Super 8 mm. (Rocom Parentaid film
system, parent counseling child care) Prev. pub. 29Oct70. NM:
editorial revision. © Hoffmann LaRoche, Inc.; 29Jun73; MP25119.

MP25120.
Temperature. Sutherland Learning Associates. 5 min., sd., color,
Super 8 mm. (Rocom Parentaid film system, parent counseling child
care) Prev. pub. 29Oct70. NM: editorial revision. © Hoffmann
LaRoche, Inc.; 29Jun73; MP25120.

MP25121.
Allergy. Sutherland Learning Associates. 8 min., sd., color, Super 8
mm. (Rocom Parentaid film system, parent counseling child care)
Prev. pub. 29Oct70. NM: editorial revision. © Hoffmann LaRoche,
Inc.; 29Jun73; MP25121.

MP25122.
Accident prevention. Sutherland Learning Associates. 10 min., sd.,
color, Super 8 mm. (Rocom Parentaid film system, parent counseling
child care) Prev. pub. 29Oct70, MP22907. NM: editorial revision. ©
Hoffmann LaRoche, Inc.; 29Jun73; MP25122.

MP25123.
The Fussy baby. Sutherland Learning Associates. 8 min., sd., color,
Super 8 mm. (Rocom Parentaid film system, parent counseling child
care) Prev. pub. 29Oct70. NM: editorial revision. © Hoffmann
LaRoche, Inc.; 29Jun73; MP25123.

MP25124.
Immunizations. Sutherland Learning Associates. 6 min., sd., color,
Super 8 mm. (Rocom Parentaid film system, parent counseling child
care) Prev. pub. 29Oct70. NM: editorial revision. © Hoffmann
LaRoche, Inc.; 29Jun73; MP25124.