An Advanced Lifespan Odyssey for

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Bradley T. Erford
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 ERFORD
An Advanced Lifespan Odyssey

An Advanced Lifespan Odyssey for Counseling Professionals

for Counseling Professionals

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B R A D L E Y T. E R F O R D
An Advanced
LifeSpan Odyssey for
Counseling Professionals
1e

Bradley T. Erford
Loyola University Maryland

Australia Brazil Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States

 An Advanced Lifespan Odyssey for
Counseling Professionals
Bradley T. Erford
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This effort is dedicated to The One:
the Giver of energy, passion, and understanding ;
Who makes life worth living and endeavors
worth pursuing and accomplishing ;
the Teacher of love and forgiveness.
Brief Contents

Chapter 1 Important Fundamental Principles

in Lifespan Development 1
By Katie Sandberg and Bradley T. Erford
Chapter 2 Theories of Human Development:
Psychosocial, Sociocultural, Multicultural,
Biological, and Learning Theories 39
By Caroline O’Hara, Lindy K. Parker, and Catherine Y. Chang
Chapter 3 Theories of Human Development:
Cognitions, Morality and Faith,
and the Human Experience 59
By Lindy K. Parker, Caroline O’Hara, and Catherine Y. Chang
Chapter 4 Genetics, Heredity, Environment,
and Prenatal Development 81
By Taryn Richards and Bradley T. Erford
Chapter 5 Physical and Cognitive Development
in the Infancy and Toddlerhood Years 113
By Nadine E. Garner and Julia M. Dunn
Chapter 6 Emotional and Social Development
in the Infancy and Toddlerhood Years 145
By Nadine E. Garner and Julia M. Dunn
Chapter 7 The Preschool Years: Early Childhood
Physical and Cognitive Development 175
By Charlotte Daughhetee and Stephen Parker
Chapter 8 The Preschool Years: Early Childhood
Emotional and Social Development 193
By Stephen Parker and Charlotte Daughhetee
Chapter 9 Middle Childhood: Physical
and Cognitive Development 215
By Stephanie Puleo
Chapter 10 Middle Childhood: Emotional
and Social Development 229
By Stephanie Puleo
Chapter 11 The Adolescent Years: Physical
and Cognitive Development 249
By Ann Vernon

v
vi Brief Contents

Chapter 12 The Adolescent Years: Emotional, Identity,

and Social Development 267
By Ann Vernon
Chapter 13 Young Adulthood: Physical
and Cognitive Development 289
By Stephanie Crockett
Chapter 14 Young Adulthood: Social, Emotional,
and Career Development 311
By Stephanie Crockett
Chapter 15 Middle Adulthood: Physical
and Cognitive Development 345
By Robin Lee, Jennifer Jordan, Michelle Stevens, and Andrew Jones
Chapter 16 Middle Adulthood: Social/Emotional, Family, Career,
and Spiritual Development 367
By Robin Lee, Jennifer Jordan, Michelle Stevens, and Andrew Jones
Chapter 17 Later Adulthood and Old Age: Physical and Cognitive
Development 389
By Cecile Yancu, Debbie Newsome, Joseph Wilkerson, and Shannon Mathews
Chapter 18 Relationships and Psychosocial Aspects
of Later Adulthood 423
By Debbie Newsome, Cecile Yancu, Joseph Wilkerson, and Shannon Mathews
Glossary  451
references  469
AUthor INDEX 513
subject INDEX 527
Contents
Preface xv
About the Editor xxi
About the Authors xxiii
Ancillaries xxvii
Acknowledgments xxix
Chapter 1
Important Fundamental Principles
in Lifespan Development 1
By Katie Sandberg and Bradley T. Erford
Important Fundamental Principles in Lifespan
Development 2
Stages of Life 2
The Prenatal Period through Old Age 2 Childhood in the Middle Ages 40
Aging Processes 4
The Nature of Development 6
Human Development Is Cumulative 6
Human Development Is Variable 7
Human Development Is Cyclical and Repetitive
Human Development Is Influenced by Cultural
Differences 7
Human Development Involves Vast Individual
Differences 8
Human Development Involves Both Stability
and Change 8
Important Human Development Principles
and Issues 9
Discontinuous versus Continuous Development 9
Predictable and Historical Changes 11
Critical Periods versus Flexibility/Plasticity 12
Active versus Passive Development 13
Nature versus Nurture 13
Types of Theory Structures Common in Human
Development 22
Stage Theories 22
Incremental Theories 23
Multidimensional Theories 24
Counseling Perspectives: Normal versus Abnormal
Development 24
Framing Situations from a Normal Developmental
Perspective 24
Nosological Systems of Problem Identification
and Intervention Selection 25
Studying Human Development 27
Data Collection Methods 27
Research Designs Most Commonly Used in Human
Development Research 31
The Ethics of Human Development Research 35
Summary 37
Chapter 2
Theories of Human Development:
Psychosocial, Sociocultural, Multicultural,
Biological, and Learning Theories 39
By Caroline O’Hara, Lindy K. Parker, and Catherine Y. Chang
Historical Perspectives 40
Children in the 18th and 19th Centuries 40
Childhood in the 20th Century 40
Childhood in the 21st Century 41
Psychosocial Theories 41
7 Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) 41
Neo-Freudians 43
Erik Erikson (1902–1994) 44
Jane Loevinger (1918–2008) 44
Arthur W. Chickering (1887–1974) 45
Sociocultural Theories 45
Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) 45
Murray Bowen (1913–1990) 46
Family Lifecycle Development 46
Uri Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) 47
Multicultural Theories of Development 47
White Racial Identity Development 48
Black Racial Identity Development 48
Biracial Identity Development 49
Multiple Heritage Identity Development 49
Biological Theories of Human Development 50
Darwin (1809–1882) 50
Ethological Theory 50
Attachment Theory 50
Maturation Theory 52
Learning Theories 52
Behavioralism 52
Social Learning Theory 55
Psychoanalytic Learning Theory 56
Summary 56
vii
viii Contents

Chapter 3 Jean Baker Miller (1927–2006) 78

Theories of Human Development: Harriet Lerner (b. 1944) 79
Cognitions, Morality and Faith, Carol Tavris (b. 1944) 79
and the Human Experience 59 Carol Gilligan (b. 1936) 79
By Lindy K. Parker, Caroline O’Hara, and Catherine Y. Chang Summary 80

Theories of Cognitive and Intellectual Chapter 4

Development 60 Genetics, Heredity, Environment,
Piaget’s Stages of Development 60 and Prenatal Development 81
Intelligence, Genetics, and Environment 60 By Taryn Richards and Bradley T. Erford
Intelligence and Age 61
Identifying Intelligence 61 Genetics and Heredity 82
Information Processing: Wechsler (1896–1981) 61 The Cell and Its Makeup 82
Multiple Intelligences: Gardner (b. 1943) Genes, Chromosomes, DNA, and Replication 82
and Goleman (b. 1946) 62 Hereditary Disorders 84
William G. Perry, Jr.: Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Twin and Adoption Studies 86
Development in the College Years 62 Genetics and Behavior 87
Robert Kegan: The Constructive-Developmental Genotype and Phenotype 89
Approach 62 Molecular Genetics: The Human Genome
Cognitive Behavioral Theories 63 Project 90
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy 63 Genetic Counseling 90
Cognitive Therapy: Aaron T. Beck (b. 1921) 63 Reproductive Technologies 92
Choice Theory: William Glasser (1925–2012) 64 Motivations for Parenthood 93
Moral Development 65 Prenatal Development 95
Locke’s Tabula Rasa 65 Detecting Pregnancy 95
Rousseau and Innate Goodness 65 Miscarriage and Abortion 96
The Psychoanalytic, Social Learning, and Behavioral Physical Development 97
Perspectives 65 Factors Affecting the Prenatal Environment 98
Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development 65 Parent Relationships 102
Kohlberg’s (1927–1987) Theory of Moral Development 66 Importance of Prenatal Care 103
Carol Gilligan (b. 1936) 67 Birthing Methods 103
Humanistic Theories of Development 68 Problem Pregnancies 105
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 68 Childbirth 107
Rogers’ Fully Functioning Person 70 Adaptation to the Environment and Physical
Bühler’s Developmental Theory 70 Conditions 109
Jahoda’s Positive Mental Health 71 Neonatal Procedures, Tests, and Adaptations 109
Character Strengths and Positive Psychology 72 Postpartum Depression 110
Faith Development 72 Summary 112
Oser’s Religious Judgments 73
Adult Development Theories 74 Chapter 5
Gould’s Phases of Adult Life 74 Physical and Cognitive Development
Levinson’s Seasons of Life 74 in the Infancy and Toddlerhood Years 113
Havighurst’s Theory of Human Development By Nadine E. Garner and Julia M. Dunn
and Developmental Tasks 75
Welcome to Infancy and Toddlerhood! 114
Vaillant’s Adaptation to Life 76
Sheehy’s Passages 76 SECTION I Physical Development 114
Duvall’s Life Course Transition 77 Body Size, Proportion, and Skeletal Age 114
Peck’s Theory of Adult Development 78 Fat Composition, Muscle Growth, and Teeth 115
Butler’s Life Review 78 Reflexes 116
Developmental Theories (Perspectives) Nutrition and Malnutrition 117
of Womanhood 78 Health Concerns and Vaccinations 119

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 119
Shaken Baby Syndrome 120
Vaccinations 120
Motor Development 121
The Sequence of Motor Development
Cultural Variations 122
Sleep Cycle 122
Perception 124
Vision 124
Hearing 125
Taste and Smell 126
Touch 127
Intermodal Perception 127
Toilet Training and Elimination
Communication 128
SECTION II Cognitive Development
Structure of the Nervous System 130
Sensorimotor Development 130
Information Processing 132
Intelligence 133
Early Interventions for At-Risk Infants
and Toddlers 134
Language Development 136
Laws of Language 136
Theories of Language Development
Cognition and Language 140
Parental Influences 141
Cultural Variations 141
Summary 142
Chapter 6
Emotional and Social Development
in the Infancy and Toddlerhood Years
By Nadine E. Garner and Julia M. Dunn
SECTION I Emotional Development 146
The Function of Emotions 146
Emerging Emotions 147
The Sequence of Emotional Development 148
Cultural Variations 148
Theoretical Perspectives 149
Attachment 150
Quality of Caregiver Relationship 150
Models of Attachment 151
Ainsworth and the Strange Situation 152
Attachment to Mothers and Fathers 153
Multiple Attachments 154
Cultural Variations 157
Employment, Day Care, and Attachment 157
Temperament Development 157
Contents ix
The Stability of Temperament 158
Measuring Temperament 160
Temperament and Child Rearing 161
Cultural Variations in Temperament 163
121 SECTION II Social Development 164
Developing the “Self System” 164
Effortful Control and Self-Regulation/
Self-Control 165
Social Referencing 167
Socialization 167
Socializing Emotions 167
Play and Social Skills 168
The Newborn in the Family Lifecycle 170
Summary 172
130 Chapter 7
The Preschool Years: Early Childhood
Physical and Cognitive Development 175
By Charlotte Daughhetee and Stephen Parker
SECTION I Physical Development 176
Individual Differences 176
Brain Growth 176
Motor Skills 177
140 Health 178
Visual and Hearing Impairments 179
Sleep Habits 180
SECTION II Cognitive Development 181
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage 181
Concepts 183
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 184
145 Information Processing 185
Language Development 186
Education 188
Summary 191
Chapter 8
The Preschool Years: Early Childhood
Emotional and Social Development 193
By Stephen Parker and Charlotte Daughhetee
SECTION I Emotional Development 194
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 194
Adler’s Individual Psychology 194
Family Systems Theory 197
Emotional Competence 199
Mental Disorders in Early Childhood 201
Child Maltreatment 202
SECTION II Social Development 204
x Contents

Sex Role and Gender Role Development 204 Seriation 222

Biological Approaches 205 Transivity 222
Psychoanalytic Theory 205 Conservation 223
Behavioral Theory 206 Time 223
Cognitive Development Theory 206 Information Processing 223
Interpretivist Theory 207 Structures 224
Diversity 208 Processes 224
Ethnicity 208 Language Development 226
Social Class 208 Intelligence 226
School/Day Care Influences on Socialization 209 Mindsets 226
Care in the Child’s Home 210 Exceptionalities 227
Family Day Care 210 Intellectual Disability 227
Child Care Centers 210 Learning Disability 227
Parenting Styles 211 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Authoritarian Parenting 211 (ADHD) 228
Authoritative Parenting 211 Summary 228
Permissive Parenting 211
Uninvolved Parental Style 212 Chapter 10
Play 212 Middle Childhood: Emotional and Social
Childhood Friendships 213 Development 229
Play Therapy 214 By Stephanie Puleo
Summary 214
SECTION I Emotional Development 230
Chapter 9 Freud and Erikson 230
Middle Childhood: Physical and Cognitive Developing Self 230
Development 215 Self-Concept 230
By Stephanie Puleo Self-Esteem 231
Emotions 231
SECTION I Physical Development 216 Emotional Intelligence 231
Growth and Physical Development 216 Emotional Regulation 231
Growth and Physical Changes 216 Emotional Problems in Middle Childhood 232
Brain Development 216 Disruptive Behavior Disorders 232
Motor Development 217 The Counselor in the Child’s Journey through
Gross Motor Development 217 Disruptive Behavior Disorders 233
Fine Motor Development 218 Anxiety, Depression, and Grief 234
Physical Activity, Play, and Sports 218 The Counselor in the Child’s Journey through Anxiety,
Physical Activity 218 Depression, and Grief 235
Play 218 SECTION II Social Development 237
Sports 218 Moral Development 237
Diet, Nutrition, and Weight 219 Social Awareness 240
Diet 219 Social Cognition 240
Body Weight 219 Social Perspective Taking 240
Accidents and Illness 220 Peer Relationships 240
Accidents 220 Social Exclusion 240
Chronic Illnesses/Conditions 220 Friendships 241
Cancer 220
Pro-Social and Antisocial Behavior 242
SECTION II Cognitive Development 221 Bullying 243
Piaget’s Concrete Operations 222 Social Influences 244
Reversibility 222 Sports 244
Grouping 222 Screen Time 244

Family 246
Divorce 246
Summary 247
Chapter 11
The Adolescent Years: Physical and Cognitive
Development 249
By Ann Vernon
Adolescent Development 250
SECTION I Physical Development
Changes Resulting from Puberty 252
Hormonal Changes 253
Female Development 253
Male Development 254
Adolescent Health 254
Body Image and Eating Disorders
Anorexia Nervosa 255
Bulimia Nervosa 256
SECTION II Cognitive Development
Brain Development 257
Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage 258
Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory
Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
Information Processing 259
Structural Change 259
Functional Change 259
Language Development 260
Moral Reasoning 260
Stages of Moral Development
The School Experience 261
Academic Achievement 262
Ethnic Differences 263
Gender Differences 263
The Dropout Problem 264
Adolescent Egocentrism 264
Summary 265
Chapter 12
The Adolescent Years: Emotional, Identity,
and Social Development 267
By Ann Vernon
SECTION I Emotional and Identity
Development 268
Emotional Development 268
Adolescent Anxiety 268
Adolescent Depression 269
Prevalence and Symptoms 269
Contents xi
Factors Contributing to Depression 269
Who Is Most Vulnerable? 270
Suicide 270
SECTION II Identity Development 272
Erikson’s Theory of Development 272
Marcia’s Identity Theory 272
Gender Considerations 273
Ethnic Considerations 274
The Transition to Adulthood 274
251 SECTION III Social Development 275
The Family 275
Parenting Styles 276
Family Structure 277
Seltzer’s Adolescent Social Identity 278
Peer Relationships 278
255 Romantic Relationships and Dating 279
Risky Behaviors 279
Drug and Alcohol Use 280
Delinquency 281
257 Violence and Gangs 281
Adolescent Sexuality 281
Teen Pregnancy 283
258 Sexually Transmitted Diseases 283
259 Date Rape 283
Sexual Identity 283
Career Development 284
Leisure and Work 284
Advantages and Disadvantages of Working during
High School 284
261 Vocational Choices 285
Influences on Vocational Choices 286
College Planning 287
Transitions after High School 287
Summary 288
Chapter 13
Young Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive
Development 289
By Stephanie Crockett
Introduction to Young Adulthood 290
SECTION I Physical Development 291
Physical Functioning and Performance 291
Physical Health in Young Adulthood 292
Lifestyle Factors Influencing the Physical Health
of Young Adults 293
Tobacco Use 294
Alcohol and Illicit Drug Use 294
Diet, Exercise, and Obesity 295
xii Contents

Sleep 296 Young Adult Lifestyles 324

Sexually Risky Behaviors 297 Singlehood 325
SECTION II Cognitive Development 298 Cohabitation 325
Marriage 326
Brain Development 298
Gay/Lesbian Relationships 329
Adult Cognition: Moving beyond Adolescent
Parenthood 330
Formal Operations 299
The Transition to Parenthood 330
Perry’s Theory of Intellectual and Ethical Development
Nontraditional Paths to Parenthood 332
in the College Years 300
Women’s Ways of Knowing 302
Divorce and Remarriage 333
Kitchener’s Model of Reflective Judgment 302 SECTION II Career Development 334
Schaie’s Model of Adult Cognitive Development 303 Selecting a Career 334
Labouvie-Vief: Cognitive-Affective Complexity 304 Factors That Affect Career Selection 334
Intelligence 305 The Career Selection Process 337
Changes in Fluid and Crystallized Vocational Preparation in Young Adulthood 338
Intelligence 306 Transitioning to the Workforce: Finding Job
Changes in Divergent Thinking and Creativity 307 Satisfaction and Establishing a Vocational
Moral and Ethical Development 307 Identity 340
Moral Reasoning 307 Job Satisfaction 340
Moral Intuition 308 Work and the Development of Self-Concept 341
Moral Relativism: The Impact of Technology Career Development for Women and Ethnic
on Moral Development 309 Minorities 342
Summary 309 Balancing Work and Family during Young
Adulthood 343
Chapter 14 Summary 344
Young Adulthood: Social, Emotional,
and Career Development 311 Chapter 15
By Stephanie Crockett Middle Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive
SECTION I Social/Emotional Development 345
Development 312 By Robin Lee, Jennifer Jordan, Michelle Stevens,
Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood 312 and Andrew Jones
The Social Clock of Early Adulthood 313 An Overview of Middle Adulthood
Family Life Development in Early Adulthood 313 in Contemporary America 346
Personality Development in Early Adulthood 314 SECTION I Physical Development 347
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages: Intimacy
Growing, Maintaining, and Managing Losses
versus Isolation 315
Levinson’s Seasons of a Man’s Life 315
in Health and Fitness 347
Vaillant’s Adaptation to Life Approach 316 External Aging 347
Gould’s Evolution of Adult Consciousness 316 Physical Appearance 347
Allport’s Dimensions of Maturity 316 Muscle 348
Mental Health in Young Adulthood 317 Senses 348
Depression 318 Vision 348
Schizophrenia 319 Hearing 349
Addictions 319 Other Senses 349
Establishing Intimate Relationships 319 Reproductive System 350
Friendship 320 Women’s Reproductive Health 350
Love 321 Men’s Reproductive Health 351
Attraction, Attachment, and Mate Selection 322 Sexuality 352
Interpersonal Attraction 322 Other Organ Systems 352
Adult Attachment 323 Cardiovascular System 352
 Contents xiii

Respiratory System 352 Important Relationships and Friendships 378

Urinary System 353 Stress 378
Health Concerns 353 Theories of Stress 378
Illness 354 Type A Personality 379
Heart Disease 354 Coping Skills in Adult Life 379
Cancer 354 Techniques for Dealing with Stress 379
Risk Factors to Health 355 Optimism 379
Smoking 356 Middle Age and Attachment 380
Alcohol 356 Personality in Middle Adulthood 380
Obesity 357 SECTION II Family Development
Poor Nutrition 357
Issues 381
Eating Disorders 357
Role Expectations and Family Developmental
Minorities and Health 358
Issues 381
Successful Aging 359
Family Adjustment to Crises 381
SECTION II Cognitive Development 361 Grandparenthood 381
Individual Variations 362 Empty Nest and Boomerang Generation 381
Male and Female Variations 362 Divorce 382
Information Processing 362 Children and Divorce 382
Reaction Time/Speed of Processing 362
Remarriage 382
Attention 362
Coping with Role Expectations and Family
Memory (Short and Long Term) 363
Practical Problem-Solving/Expertise 363 Developmental Issues 383
Wisdom 363 SECTION III Career Development in Middle
Fluid and Crystallized (Comprehension) Adulthood 383
Abilities 363 Job Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction 383
Midlife and Mental Illness 364 Changing Careers at Midlife and
Summary 365 Unemployment 383
Adult Learners, Returning Students 384
Chapter 16 Women in the Labor Force 385
Middle Adulthood: Social/Emotional, Family, Male/Female Differences 385
Career, and Spiritual Development 367 Leisure Activities 385
By Robin Lee, Jennifer Jordan, Michelle Stevens, and Andrew Jones Planning for Retirement 386
SECTION IV Spirituality in Middle
SECTION I Social/Emotional Adulthood 386
Development 368 Intersectionality 387
Midlife Transition Issues 368 Summary 387
The Sandwich Generation 368
Midlife Crisis: Life Events or Normative Crisis? 369
Theories of Psychosocial Development 371 Chapter 17
Levinson’s Theory of the Seasons of Life 371 Later Adulthood and Old Age: Physical
Peck’s Tasks of Ego Integrity 371 and Cognitive Development 389
Vaillant’s Theory of Adaptation to Life 372 By Cecile Yancu, Debbie Newsome, Joseph Wilkerson,
Erikson’s Generativity versus Stagnation 372 and Shannon Mathews
Gail Sheehy 373
Gould’s Developmental Theory 374 SECTION I Physical Development 390
Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory 374 Living Longer, Living Healthier 391
Self-Concept 375 The Times, They Are A-Changin’ 394
Gender Identity 376 Physical Changes in Later Adulthood 394
Intimacy and Marriage 376 Changes in the Physical Body 394
xiv Contents

Physiological Theories of Aging 395 Sexual Relations 424

Evolutionary Aging Theories 396 Marriage 424
Health, Illness and Functionality in Later Life 398 Divorce and Remarriage 425
SECTION II Social Aspects of Physical Aging Widowhood 425
in Society 403 Never Married with Children 426
Siblings 427
Social Structures, Status, and Roles 403
Friendships 427
Social Theories of Aging 403
Adult Children 427
Refining an Understanding of Aging in Society 405
Adult Grandchildren 428
Intersectionality 406 LGBT Relationships 429
Ageism 407
Ageism and Elder Abuse 430
Successful Aging 407
SECTION II Psychosocial Aspects of Late
SECTION III Cognitive Development 408 Adulthood 431
Intellectual Variations 410 Psychosocial Theories of Development in Later
Intelligence: Fluid versus Crystallized 410
Adulthood 431
Factors Affecting IQ in Later Life 410
Erikson: Ego Integrity versus Despair 431
Memory Change 411 Reminiscence and Life Review 432
Language Processing 412 Peck’s Tasks of Old Age 433
Problem Solving 412 Fisher’s Five Periods of Older Adulthood 434
Wisdom 412 Labouvie-Vief: Affect Optimization and Affect
Cognitive Interventions 413 Complexity 435
Lifelong Learning 413 SECTION III Work and Retirement 436
Factors Related to Cognitive Change 413 Retirement Trends 437
SECTION IV Dying, Death, and Making the Decision to Retire 438
Bereavement 414 Adjusting to Retirement 438
Dying: Not Always Easy to Define 414 Does Ethnicity Affect Adjustment
Defining Death Then and Now 414 to Retirement? 439
Dying Is a Process with Death as the Endpoint 414 Leisure and Volunteer Activities 440
Decisions, Decisions, Decisions! 415 SECTION IV SOCIOEMOTIONAL
Choices, Decisions, and Conversations: Where and DEVELOPMENT IN LATER LIFE 442
How We Die Today 416 Socioemotional Theories Related to Aging 442
Suicide and Older Adults 417 Stability and Change of Personality 444
Does Being Married Really Help? 417
Adversity, Resilience, and Aging 444
What about Gender Differences? 417
Adversity 445
Hospice and Palliative Care 419 Resilience 445
Grief, Bereavement, and Mourning 419 Spirituality, Religion, and Aging 447
Some Final Thoughts on Dying, Death, Terminology 447
and Bereavement 420 Positive Effects of Spirituality and Religious
Summary 420 Involvement 447
Do Religious and Spiritual Beliefs Change with Age? 448
Chapter 18 Summary 449
Relationships and Psychosocial Aspects
of Later Adulthood 423 Glossary  451
By Debbie Newsome, Cecile Yancu, Joseph Wilkerson,
and Shannon Mathews references  469

SECTION I Relationships in Later Adulthood 424 AUthor index 513

The Changing Nature of Social Support Networks
and Relationships as People Age 424 subject index 527
Preface

W elcome to the lifespan odyssey! This text was designed to align with
CACREP standards for counselor training programs. The background
education and experiences of counselors in training are quite diverse:
many have undergraduate degrees in psychology, education, or human services,
while others have undergraduate degrees in business, the humanities, or some other
discipline. Thus, some start with a basic understanding of human development
and perhaps an undergraduate course on the topic, while others have no previous
exposure to the content domain. The alignment with CACREP standards helps all
counselors-in-training to master the core knowledge of lifespan development, but
more importantly to apply this knowledge to helping people resolve difficulties they
may encounter on their lifespan odysseys. These issues might include the implica-
tions of substance abuse for development, behavioral or emotional issues associated
with trauma or an unstable environment, interventions that have been shown to be
effective when working with clients along the spectrum of developmental problems,
and the normal and abnormal human developmental processes that counselors must
master and apply during clinical experiences—and when they take their rightful
place as counseling professionals!
This text covers human development from womb to tomb across all developmen-
tal areas (e.g., physical, cognitive, language, social, emotional, career), and reflects
the trend toward empirically supported practice in the application of lifespan theo-
ries. Each life stage from infancy/toddlerhood (Chapters 5–6) to later adulthood
(Chapters 17–18) is subdivided into the following sections: physical development
(A), cognitive development (B), social/emotional development (C), and social/
career development (D), as applicable. With an engaging writing style, a multitude
of real-life examples make the content concrete, understandable, and applicable to
counselor training. Each chapter includes case studies, reflections, and discussions of
current issues, all while focusing on cross-cultural variations. Descriptions of more
than 30 major developmental theories and perspectives are provided, and abnormal
psychological development and mental and emotional disorders are integrated into
all chapters, from infancy through later adulthood, as appropriate. Reflections from
counselors and parents that give counselors-in-training ideas for how the theoreti-
cal and content pieces can be integrated into real-life practice applications. Lifespan
instructors will also be pleased to know that a comprehensive instructor’s manual is
available from Cengage, with chapter outlines, summaries, and a test bank of multiple-
choice, true/false, and extended response questions.
Chapter 1, “Important Fundamental Principles in Lifespan Development,” by
Katie Sandberg and Bradley T. Erford, introduces some fundamental topics and prin-
ciples of lifespan development, how current knowledge about human development
was derived, and methods used to pursue emerging knowledge and understanding.
A brief overview of the “stages of development” is followed by aging processes, the
nature of development, important principles and issues in human development, and
how developmental theories are categorized. Finally, we turn our attention to how, as
humans, we generate knowledge and understanding of complex human phenomena
through human development research.

xv
xvi  Preface

Chapter 2, “Theories of Human Development: Psychosocial, Sociocultural, Multi-

cultural, Biological, and Learning Theories,” by Caroline O’Hara, Lindy K. Parker, and
Catherine Y. Chang, explores how human development is influenced by multiple factors
(e.g., biology, society, culture, environment) and how various theorists over the years have
attempted to explain how humans grow and develop. In this and in Chapter 3, brief over-
views of the major theories of human development are provided. In Chapter 2, human
development is explored from historical, psychosocial, sociocultural, and multicultural
perspectives. Biological and learning theories are also examined. While Chapter 2 serves
as an introduction and overview of the myriad theories attempting to explain human
development, many of these theories will be discussed in later chapters, embedded in the
context of the appropriate life stage.
Chapter 3, “Theories of Human Development: Cognitions, Morality and Faith, and the
Human Experience,” was also written by Lindy K. Parker, Caroline O’Hara, and Catherine
Y. Chang. Chapter 3 examines theories of cognitive and intellectual development,
moral development, humanism, and faith development. The chapter ends with a brief
introduction to adult development theories, with a special focus on developmental theo-
ries of womanhood.
Chapter 4, “Genetics, Heredity, Environment, and Prenatal Development,” by Taryn
Richards and Bradley T. Erford, proposes that human beings are complex creatures whose
similarities and differences are determined in large part by genetics and heritability.
From conception, a person’s physical and cognitive development unfolds in a predictable
manner according to information encoded in DNA. As the embryo or fetus develops,
environmental influences become more important, and trauma in the prenatal environment
can have significant long-term effects—and can even result in death. Chapter 4 reviews
the importance of genetics and heritability to the developing human being, and normal
and abnormal developmental processes throughout the trimesters of the prenatal period,
which begins at conception and culminates in the birth of new living, breathing human
being just waiting to embark on a lifespan odyssey!
Chapter 5, “Physical and Cognitive Development in the Infancy and Toddlerhood
Years,” was written by Nadine E. Garner and Julia M. Dunn. The years from infancy through
toddlerhood, spanning approximately birth through age 3, serve as a bridge between life
in the womb and the more independent functioning of preschoolers. This chapter explores
the tremendous changes that occur in the physical and cognitive domains of the infant
and toddler. The rapid brain and body growth during this developmental period are highly
context-dependent, shaped by nutrition, sleep, parenting, the broader culture, and the
child’s own temperament. The child’s unique pattern of development lays the groundwork
for the continuing adventure across the lifespan.
Chapter 6, “Emotional and Social Development in the Infancy and Toddlerhood
Years,” was also written by Nadine E. Garner and Julia M. Dunn. It explores the tremen-
dous changes that occur in the emotional and social domains of the infant and toddler. The
rapid changes during this developmental period are highly context-dependent, shaped by
the broader culture and the child’s own temperament. The child’s unique pattern of emo-
tional and social development lays the groundwork for the continuing adventure through-
out the lifespan.
Chapter 7, “The Preschool Years: Early Childhood Physical and Cognitive Develop-
ment,” was written by Charlotte Daughhetee and Stephen Parker. In the odyssey of human
development, the preschool years are a time of many momentous challenges and changes.
This chapter provides an overview of both physical and cognitive development during the
preschool or early childhood years (approximately ages 2 or 3 through 6 years of age), a
time when children make substantial developmental advances in their lifespan journey.
Issues related to growth and health, as well as the progression of cognitive processes, are
 Preface xvii

explored. The preschool years are a time of tremendous growth for children, and healthy
physical and cognitive growth and development are essential for well-being.
Chapter 8, “The Preschool Years: Early Childhood Emotional and Social Develop-
ment,” was also written by Stephen Parker and Charlotte Daughhetee. They propose that
life is not a solitary journey, that we traverse our lifespan in relationships with others. The
formation of a sense of self and the extent of one’s ability to form bonds and connections
with others is a crucial aspect of development during the preschool years. Through mul-
tifaceted familial and societal influences, individuals form a basis of emotional and social
competence that will guide their personal odyssey across the lifespan.
In Chapter 9, “Middle Childhood: Physical and Cognitive Development,” by Stephanie
Puleo, the lifespan odyssey proceeds through middle childhood, beginning around age
6 with the adventure of entering elementary school, and continues until about age 11.
In Chapter 9, changes in physical and cognitive functioning that occur during middle
childhood are discussed. As attention is focused on these domains, it is important to keep
in mind that each develops in conjunction with emotional and social development and
is influenced by environmental factors. The development of each child is unique, contin-
gent on the interaction of a variety of factors, so a range of phenomena that occur during
middle childhood is presented.
Chapter 10, “Middle Childhood: Emotional and Social Development,” was also writ-
ten by Stephanie Puleo. While family influences remain important, the school environ-
ment plays an increasingly greater role in the child’s cognitive, emotional, and social
development during middle childhood. Before they can learn to read, write, and compute,
children must be able to function in the absence of their primary caretakers for extended
periods of time. As their attention shifts from home to school and from fantasy to reality,
children in middle childhood acquire skills and concepts necessary for daily living. Their
attention spans increase, their motor abilities grow more complex, they gain better under-
standing of right and wrong, they begin to think logically, they become integrated into
social networks, and their developing self-awareness permits them to compare themselves
to others and refine their self-concepts.
Chapter 11, “The Adolescent Years: Physical and Cognitive Development,” by Ann
Vernon, revisits adolescence, a unique and important stage of development that marks the
passage from childhood to adulthood, by looking at what occurs with regard to physical
and cognitive development. It is important to note that there are some significant dynam-
ics of early adolescence (about ages 11–14) that are different from middle adolescence
(about ages 15–18). Parents, teachers, and adolescents welcome this change, although,
depending on the rate at which they reach formal operational thinking, some older ado-
lescents still appear much like young adolescents.
Chapter 12, “The Adolescent Years: Emotional, Identity, and Social Development,”
also by Ann Vernon, explores the emotional, identity, and social development that occurs
during adolescence. Early adolescence is generally considered to be a more emotionally
volatile time, while mid-adolescence is a more emotionally stable period, where the “yo-
yo” nature of early adolescence is replaced by greater stability, less dependence on peers,
greater self-reliance, and more flexible and rational thought patterns. In addition to the
challenges associated with “mood management,” adolescents also are faced with the very
major task of developing an independent identity and navigating more complex social rela-
tionships. Parents, teachers, and adolescents welcome these changes, although, depending
on the rate at which they reach formal operational thinking, some older adolescents may
still appear much like young adolescents.
Chapter 13, “Young Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development,” by Stephanie
Crockett, proposes that in Western cultures, the journey to adulthood is marked more
by the achievement of certain developmental tasks rather than a specific chronological
xviii  Preface

age, although young adulthood is normative from the age range of 18 years through the
30s. Young adulthood is frequently associated with achieving the following tasks: accept-
ing responsibility for oneself, making independent decisions, and becoming financially
independent. Chapter 13 provides an overview of the characteristics and developmental
tasks that define young adulthood. The physical and cognitive changes that young adults
experience are explored in detail.
Then in Chapter 14, “Young Adulthood: Social, Emotional, and Career Development,”
also written by Stephanie Crockett, young adulthood marks a transitional period full of
social-emotional and career developmental changes as well. Most young adults have suf-
ficiently resolved the identity issues associated with adolescence and can begin to focus
on establishing intimate relationships and starting a career. Social development in young
adulthood is characterized by the development and maintenance of close relationships
with intimate partners, friends, and family. In addition to establishing relationships, young
adults focus on becoming productive workers and achieving the tasks associated with find-
ing and maintaining a career. This chapter examines the ways in which young adults go
about establishing and maintaining intimate relationships, and the vast variety in lifestyle
choices made. Personality development and mental health in young adulthood are also
discussed. The second half of the chapter focuses on career selection, vocational prepara-
tion, transitioning to the workforce, and balancing work-life roles.
Chapter 15, “Middle Adulthood: Physical and Cognitive Development,” was authored
by Robin Lee, Jennifer Jordan, Michelle Stevens, and Andrew Jones. In the past decade,
middle adulthood has been redefined by society. No longer is middle adulthood consid-
ered to be the beginning of the aging process; rather, it is recognized that this group of
people may be entering an exciting chapter in their lives. Middle adulthood can be an
incredibly rich stage of life, with a variety of life experiences. Many in middle adulthood
are raising young children; others are enjoying grandchildren. Some are rediscovering
their partners or significant others after years of focusing on children or careers. With the
momentous developments in medical technologies, many in middle adulthood are finding
ways not only to delay aging, but also to prevent it in some ways. While some in middle
adulthood can face negative changes to their physical health, they can also experience
significant positive changes in all areas of development including physical, cognitive, and
social/emotional. People in middle adulthood have experienced a wide variety of social
events that have defined them, from the civil rights movement to the women’s movement,
as well as the development of technologies we all use today. All these significant experi-
ences have created a rich developmental stage of life we call middle adulthood.
Chapter 16, “Middle Adulthood: Social/Emotional, Family, Career, and Spiritual
Development,” was also authored by Robin Lee, Jennifer Jordan, Michelle Stevens, and
Andrew Jones. Middle adulthood brings about myriad social and emotional developmen-
tal changes; it is a transition between being the younger generation beginning their adult
lives and being the older generation and slowing down. This stage within the lifespan
introduces new situations: establishing a career, raising children, caring for the older gen-
eration, and preparing for retirement. Middle adulthood describes a developmental stage
that often gets “stuck” and overlooked but given greater responsibility. Is this the cause of
the “midlife crisis”? Does the “midlife crisis” really exist? Middle adulthood also presents
different challenges and opportunities, such as maintaining marital relationships, ending
them, or beginning new relationships. But relationships change because the self-concept
of a middle adult is often one of confidence and insecurity.
And, finally, the odyssey transitions through older adulthood and ultimate demise.
Chapter 17, “Later Adulthood and Old Age: Physical and Cognitive Development,” by
Cecile Yancu, Debbie Newsome, Joseph Wilkerson, and Shannon Mathews, starts with
the notable supposition that, globally, the population is aging. Those aged 60 and older
 Preface xix

have increased from 8% of the total population in 1950 to 11% in 2011 and are expected
to reach 22% by 2050. Among the elderly, the 80 years and over group is also growing
exponentially. In the United States, the leading edge of the “Baby Boomer” generation, a
large cohort of people born between 1946 and 1964, has reached the age of Medicare and
Social Security. Although population aging raises important challenges for every society,
the good news is that while people are living longer, they are also living healthier for more
years of life. With the help of modern medicine, a healthier lifestyle, and a cleaner envi-
ronment, older people are often able to delay debilitating illness until shortly before death.
As a result, our ideas about growing older have evolved from being a time of social with-
drawal and frailty to a period of vitality, community engagement, and tackling challenges
head on. Older people are now seen by many as a valuable social and economic resource
capable of contributing to the economy in myriad ways, from volunteerism to skills expe-
rience to consumer power.
Chapter 18, “Relationships and Psychosocial Aspects of Later Adulthood,” was also
written by Debbie Newsome, Cecile Yancu, Joseph Wilkerson, and Shannon Mathews.
This final chapter discusses the ways social relationships evolve and change in older adults,
as well as two important societal concerns: ageism and elder abuse. Next, socioemotional
theories related to aging are introduced, as well as theories related to personality stability
and change in older adulthood. A special focus involves ways in which older adults deal
with adversity and what makes some older adults more resilient than others as they age.
Issues of spirituality and religion in later life are also addressed. Enjoy the odyssey!
About the Editor

Bradley T. Erford, Ph.D., LCPC, NCC, LPC, LP, LSP, was the 2012–2013 President of the
American Counseling Association (ACA) and a professor in the school counseling pro-
gram of the Education Specialties Department in the School of Education at Loyola Univer-
sity Maryland. He is the recipient of the American Counseling Association (ACA) Research
Award, ACA Extended Research Award, ACA Arthur A. Hitchcock Distinguished Profes-
sional Service Award, ACA Professional Development Award, and ACA Carl D. Perkins
Government Relations Award. He was also inducted as an ACA Fellow. In addition, he has
received the Association for Assessment in Counseling and Education (AACE) AACE/
MECD Research Award, AACE Exemplary Practices Award, AACE President’s Merit
Award, the Association for Counselor Education and Supervision’s (ACES) Robert O. Strip-
ling Award for Excellence in Standards, Maryland Association for Counseling and Devel-
opment (MACD) Maryland Counselor of the Year, MACD Counselor Advocacy Award,
MACD Professional Development Award, and MACD Counselor Visibility Award. He is the
editor/co-editor of numerous texts including: Orientation to the Counseling Profession (1st
and 2nd editions, Pearson Merrill, 2010, 2014), Group Work in the Schools (Pearson Mer-
rill, 2010), Transforming the School Counseling Profession (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th editions;
Pearson Merrill, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2015), Group Work: Processes and Applications (Pearson
Merrill, 2010), Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence (1st and 2nd editions, Pear-
son Merrill, 2010, 2014), Crisis Intervention and Prevention (1st and 2nd editions, Pearson
Merrill, 2010, 2014), Professional School Counseling: A Handbook of Principles, Programs
and Practices (1st and 2nd editions, pro-ed, 2004, 2010), Assessment for Counselors (1st
and 2nd editions, Cengage, 2007, 2013), Research and Evaluation in Counseling (1st and
2nd editions, Cengage, 2008, 2014), and The Counselor’s Guide to Clinical, Personality and
Behavioral Assessment (Cengage, 2006); and co-author of three more books: 35 Techniques
Every Counselor Should Know (Merrill/Prentice-Hall, 2010), Educational Applications
of the WISC-IV (Western Psychological Services, 2006), and Group Activities: Firing Up
for Performance (Pearson/Merrill/Prentice-Hall, 2007). He is also the General Editor
of The American Counseling Association Encyclopedia of Counseling (ACA, 2009). His
research specialization falls primarily in development and technical analysis of psycho-
educational tests and has resulted in the publication of dozens of refereed journal articles
and book chapters, and eight published tests. He was a member of the ACA Governing
Council and the ACA 20/20 Visioning Committee. He is Past President of AACE, Past
Chair and Parliamentarian of the American Counseling Association—Southern (US)
Region; Past Chair of ACA’s Task Force on High Stakes Testing; Past Chair of ACA’s
Standards for Test Users Task Force; Past Chair of ACA’s Interprofessional Commit-
tee; Past Chair of the ACA Public Awareness and Support Committee (Co-Chair of the
National Awards Subcommittee); Chair of the Convention and Past Chair of the Screen-
ing Assessment Instruments Committees for AACE; Past President of the Maryland
Association for Counseling and Development (MACD); Past President of the Maryland
Association for Measurement and Evaluation (MAME); Past President of the Maryland Asso-
ciation for Counselor Education and Supervision (MACES); and Past President of the
Maryland Association for Mental Health Counselors (MAMHC). He is also a past action
editor and board member of the Journal of Counseling and Development. Dr. Erford
has been a faculty member at Loyola since 1993 and is a Licensed Clinical Professional
Counselor, Licensed Professional Counselor, Nationally Certified Counselor, Licensed

xxi
xxii  About the Editor

Psychologist, and Licensed School Psychologist. Prior to arriving at Loyola, Dr. Erford
was a school psychologist/counselor in the Chesterfield County (VA) Public Schools. He
maintains a private practice specializing in assessment and treatment of children and ado-
lescents. A graduate of the University of Virginia (Ph.D.), Bucknell University (M.A.), and
Grove City College (B.S.), he has taught courses in Testing and Measurement, Psycho-
Educational Assessment, Lifespan Development, Research and Evaluation in Counseling,
School Counseling, Counseling Techniques, and Stress Management, as well as practicum
and internship student supervision.
About the Authors

Catherine Y. Chang, Ph.D., is an associate professor and program coordinator of the coun-
selor education and practice doctoral program in the Department of Counseling and Psy-
chological Services at Georgia State University. She received her doctorate in counselor
education from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Her areas of research
interest include multicultural counseling and supervision, professional and social advo-
cacy in counseling, Asian and Korean concerns, and multicultural issues in assessment.
Stephanie A. Crockett, Ph.D., is an assistant professor and director of the Adult Career
Counseling Center in the Department of Counseling at Oakland University. She received
her doctorate in counselor education from Old Dominion University. Her areas of research
interest include career development and counseling, research methods and assessment,
and clinical supervision.
Charlotte Daughhetee, Ph.D., LPC, LMFT, NCC is a professor of counseling at the Uni-
versity of Montevallo. She has a B.S. in early childhood education from Indiana University,
and an M.Ed. in counseling and Ph.D. in counselor education, both from the University of
South Carolina. She has worked as a teacher and counselor in K–12 and in higher educa-
tion settings, and her current teaching interests include school counseling, marriage and
family counseling, and professional issues in counseling. In her clinical experience, she
has worked with children, families, and individuals in a variety of school, agency, and pri-
vate practice settings. She has published in counseling journals and textbooks on school
counseling, continuing competency, and crisis management. Her three adult children have
given permission for her to use the amusing family anecdotes in Chapter 5.
Julia M. Dunn, B.S., is a graduate student in the School Counseling program at Millersville
University of Pennsylvania and the graduate assistant for the School Counseling program.
Nadine E. Garner, Ed.D., LPC, is an associate professor in the Psychology Department and
graduate program coordinator of the school counseling program at Millersville University
of Pennsylvania. She is co-author of A School with Solutions: Implementing a Solution-
Focused/Adlerian-Based Comprehensive School Counseling Program. She provides training
in solution-focused counseling to counselors and educators both nationally and abroad.
She also consults with school districts that seek to implement a solution-focused approach
to their comprehensive developmental school counseling curriculum. As a former K–12
professional school counselor at Scotland School for Veterans’ Children, she developed a
comprehensive conflict resolution/peer mediation program.
Andrew Jones is a master’s degree candidate in the professional counseling program at
Middle Tennessee State University, where he will shortly complete his degree in mental
health counseling. He plans to pursue a Ph.D. in counselor education in the future. His
interests include working with college students and individuals with bipolar disorder.
Jennifer Jordan, Ph.D., LPCS, NCC, is an associate professor in the counseling and devel-
opment program at Winthrop University. She is past president of the Southern Association
of Counselor Education and Supervision (2011–2012). She specializes in group counseling
and working with children and adolescents.
Robin Wilbourn Lee, Ph.D., LPC, NCC, is an associate professor in the professional coun-
seling program at Middle Tennessee State University. She also serves as the director of

xxiii
xxiv  About the Authors

the MTSU Center for Counseling and Psychological Services. She received her doctorate
in counselor education and supervision from Mississippi State University. Her areas of
research interest include legal and ethical issues in counseling, counselor training program
issues, sexual assault, and domestic violence.
Shannon Mathews, Ph.D., is an assistant professor and program coordinator for the ger-
ontology program in the Department of Behavioral Sciences and Social Work at Winston-
Salem State University. She received her doctorate in gerontology from the University of
Kentucky, where she also received a master’s degree in medical anthropology. Her research
interests include disadvantage in later life, caregiving, aging in place, and issues related to
poverty across the life course.
Debbie W. Newsome, Ph.D., LPC, is an associate professor and program director of the
clinical mental health counseling program in the Department of Counseling at Wake For-
est University. She received her doctorate in counseling and counselor education from the
University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Her areas of research interest include clinical
mental health counseling, outcome assessment, and holistic approaches to counseling.
Caroline O’Hara is a doctoral student in the counselor education and practice program at
Georgia State University (GSU). She received her M.S. and Ed.S. degrees in professional
counseling from GSU. Her research interests include identity development, social justice
counseling, multicultural counseling competence, sexual and gender diversity, supervi-
sion, and advocacy (both client and professional).
Lindy K. Parker, Ed.S., LPC, NCC, is a doctoral student in the counselor education and
practice program at Georgia State University. She has clinical experience working in an
alternative school setting, and in an adolescent inpatient and outpatient psychiatric and
substance abuse hospital.
Stephen Parker is an associate professor of sociology at the University of Montevallo. He
received his B.A. and M.A. from Baylor University. He completed his Ph.D. at Indiana
University. He is co-author (with Donna Eder and Cathy Evans) of School Talk: Gender
and Adolescent Culture (1995). He has published in the American Journal of Sociology,
Sociology of Education, and the Journal of Contemporary Ethnography. His research on
child development and adolescent culture in no way prepared him for parenting his two
wonderful children. His teaching interests include sociology of culture, gender, sociologi-
cal theory, and popular music.
Stephanie Puleo, Ph.D., LMFT, LPC, NCC, is a professor in the Department of Counsel-
ing, Leadership, and Foundations at the University of Montevallo in Montevallo, Alabama.
She is certified by the American Red Cross in disaster mental health. Dr. Puleo earned her
Ph.D. in counselor education at the University of Alabama. She also has earned master’s
degrees in community counseling and school psychology. In addition to coordinating the
marriage and family counseling program track at the University of Montevallo, she pro-
vides counseling and psychometric services to individuals, couples, and families in the
Birmingham and central Alabama area.
Taryn E. Richards, M.Ed., is a nationally certified counselor and a professional secondary
school counselor in Maryland. She has authored textbook chapters, supplemental instruc-
tional materials, journal articles, and a book in the areas of lifespan development, mental
health treatment, and assessment.
Katie M. Sandberg, M.A., is a mobile mental health counselor, nationally certified coun-
selor, and a member of both Psi Chi, the International Honor Society in Psychology,
and Chi Sigma Iota, the International Honor Society in Counseling. She has authored
 About the Authors xxv

numerous textbook chapters and supplemental instructional materials in the fields of

lifespan and human development and assessment.
Michelle Stevens, Ph.D., is an assistant professor and practicum coordinator of the pro-
fessional counseling program in the Educational Leadership Department at Middle Ten-
nessee State University. She received her doctorate in counselor education from Kent State
University. Her areas of research interests include multicultural counseling and awareness,
supervision, effective practicum and counselor training, and minority graduate student
concerns.
Ann Vernon, Ph.D., NCC, LMHC, is professor emeritus and former coordinator of coun-
seling at the University of Northern Iowa, and is a counselor in private practice, where she
works extensively with children, adolescents, and their parents. Dr. Vernon is the former
Director of the Midwest Center for REBT and Vice-President of the Albert Ellis Board of
Trustees. She is the author of numerous books, chapters, and articles, including Thinking,
Feeling, Behaving and What Works When with Children and Adolescents
Joe Wilkerson, M.A., LPCA, is a graduate of the clinical mental health counseling program
at Wake Forest University. He works in community mental health in the mountains of
western North Carolina.
Cecile Y. Yancu, Ph.D., is an associate professor of sociology in the Department of Behav-
ioral Sciences and Social Work at Winston-Salem State University. She received her doc-
torate in socio-medical sciences from Columbia University of the City of New York. Her
research focuses on disparities in health-related quality of life. Specific areas include the
impact of chronic daily stress on obesity-related health disparities, underuse of hospice
and palliative care by African-Americans, and high-risk sexual behavior among young
African-American adults.
Ancillaries

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xxvii
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Brothers in arms
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Brothers in arms

Author: E. Alexander Powell

Release date: October 24, 2023 [eBook #71951]

Language: English

Original publication: Boston: Houghton Mifflin company, 1917

Credits: Peter Becker, David E. Brown, and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
produced from images generously made available by The
Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BROTHERS

IN ARMS ***
BROTHERS IN ARMS
BROTHERS IN ARMS
BY

E. ALEXANDER POWELL

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY

BOSTON AND NEW YORK :: THE
RIVERSIDE PRESS CAMBRIDGE
COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY E. ALEXANDER POWELL

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Published June 1917

 To

Brigadier-General Joseph E. Kuhn, U.S.A.

and his associates of the Army War College
in appreciation of the many kindnesses
they have shown me
BROTHERS IN ARMS
 BROTHERS IN ARMS
We fight once more for freedom. For the fifth time in our history we
draw the sword in the cause of liberty. The Revolution won the
freedom of the nation. In 1812 we fought for the freedom of the seas.
The Civil War was waged for the preservation of the Union and the
liberation of the slaves. We went to war with Spain that Cuba might
be free. Now we enter the Great War to preserve democracy and to
insure the freedom of the world. And France, after an interim of
nearly seven-score years, is our ally once again. In order to draw
closer the bonds of our ancient friendship, to hearten us in the
tremendous task which we have undertaken, and to place at our
disposal the knowledge for which she has paid in blood and tears,
France sent to us across perilous seas a mission composed of her
most illustrious men. She sent them as a reminder that she was our
first friend among the nations and an old comrade in arms, and
because her ideals and aspirations are identical with our own. It was
as though she had stretched out a hand across the ocean and laid it
on America’s shoulder and had said, “Sister, well done.”
Though the coming of these men stirs our souls and grips our
imagination, we are still too close to the picture to perceive its full
beauty and grandeur. Real appreciation of its significance to
ourselves and to the world can come only with the years. When time
grants it the justice of perspective, the visit of the French envoys to
our shores will be recognized as one of the turning-points in our
history. It will prove as epochal as the landing of the Pilgrims, as the
coming of Rochambeau, as the emancipation of the slaves.
Meanwhile we must not make the mistake of looking on it as merely
a picturesque incident which afforded an excuse for processions and
banquets and addresses of welcome. It has a far deeper meaning; it
means that History, in writing the story of the American people, has
begun a new chapter.
Because I have myself marched with the armies of France, because
in her hospitals I have seen the endless rows of white-bandaged
wounded and upon her hillsides the other rows of white crosses,
because I have witnessed the desecration of her churches and the
destruction of her cities and the cruelties inflicted on her civil
population by a brutal and ruthless soldiery, because from the
bottom of my heart I admire her courage, her serenity, her
abstinence from all complaint, because I appreciate the sentiment
which prompted her to send us these great men as a pledge of her
friendship and faith, and because I wish those of my country-people
who have not had the opportunity of knowing the French as well as I
have to understand what manner of men are these, our brothers in
arms, I have written this little book.
On the 25th of April, 1917,—it is a date which we shall teach our
children,—the anchor of the Lorraine, which brought the
commissioners from France, rumbled down off the Virginia shore.
The route by which the mission traveled from the Capes of the
Chesapeake to the Capital held in its one hundred and eighty-five
miles more places of historical significance to the American people
than any other route of like distance that could be laid out on a map
of the world. At Hampton Roads, where the commissioners boarded
the Mayflower, which was to take them up the Potomac to
Washington, was fought the first battle between ironclads; a battle
which sent the wooden navies of Europe to the scrap-heap and
changed the history of the world. Across the bay the visitors could
see the mouth of the James, up which sailed, two centuries ago,
Captain John Smith and his fellow-adventurers, to found on its
shores the first permanent English settlement in the New World. A
half-hour’s steam brought them to the mouth of another river, the
York, where once lay the frigates of the Comte de Grasse, the lilied
flag of France drooping from their sterns. Here one of the
commissioners, the young Marquis de Chambrun, might have said
with pardonable pride, “A few miles up that river my grandfather, the
Marquis de Lafayette, helped General Washington to win the battle
which assured to the American Colonies their independence.”
Now the Mayflower entered the Potomac, a stream whose every mile
is peopled with the ghosts of the history-makers. Here the
imaginative Frenchmen, leaning over the steamer’s rail, with the
incomparable landscape slipping past, could not but have yielded to
the river’s mystic spell. Lulled by the ripple of the water running aft
along the hull, they found themselves living in this region’s storied
and romantic past. Indians in paint and feathers slipped silently
along in their barken war-canoes. Lean and sun-bronzed white men,
clad in the fringed buckskin of the adventuring frontiersman, floated
past them down the stream. A square-rigged merchantman poked its
inquisitive bowsprit around a rocky headland, seeking a spot at
which its band of colonists might land. Frigates, flying the flag of
England and with the black muzzles of guns peering from their tiers
of ports, cautiously ascended, the leadsmen in the shrouds sounding
for river-bars. Log forts and trading posts and mission stations once
again crowned the encircling hills. Forgotten battles blew by on the
evening breeze. A yellow dust-cloud rose above the river-bank and
out of it emerged a plodding wagon train. The smoke of pioneer
camp-fires spiraled skyward from those rich Maryland valleys, where
in reality sleek cattle browsed in lush-green pastures and the
orchards were pink and white with promised fruit. Borne on the night
wind came the rumble of ghostly cannonading, and the thoughts of
the visitors harked back to the month-long battle of the Wilderness,
fought yonder, amid the Virginia forests, by the armies of Grant and
Lee. Dawn came, and out of the mist to starboard loomed the
peninsula of Indian Head, where the ridiculed inventor, Langley, flew,
for the first time in history, a motor-driven aeroplane—forerunner of
the thousands of aircraft which to-day swoop and soar and circle
above the battle-line. In the very waters through which the Mayflower
was now ploughing, a poor Irish schoolmaster, John Philip Holland,
evolved the marvel of the undersea boat and thereby did more to
shape the course of this war than Haig or Hindenburg or Marshal
Joffre himself. Now above the port rail, high on its wooded hillside,
showed the stately white façade of Mount Vernon, the home of the
founder of this nation and the first leader of its armies, and, close by,
the modest brick tomb where the great soldier and his wife lie
sleeping. Rounding the river bend, the mighty shaft of the
Washington Monument rose skyward like a pointing finger, as though
emphasizing the motto graved upon our coins. Alexandria, with its
white steeples and its old, old houses, came in view, and beyond it
the templed hills of Arlington, where rest, in their last bivouac, the
men who died for the Union. Now the long journey of the Frenchmen
was almost finished; their destination was at hand. Slowly, with much
clanging of bells and shouting of orders, the white yacht sidled up to
the quay, the gangway was run out, the Marine Band burst into
Rouget de l’Isle’s splendid Hymn, and the envoys, filing between
massed rows of bluejackets whose rifles formed a lane of burnished
steel, set foot on the soil of the United States, not as strangers, but
as allies and friends.
Each step in the route of the commissioners through Washington
was a lesson in American history, and it was this that gave the route
its great dignity and significance. It was not the cheering throngs that
lined it, or the thousands of flags that fluttered from the buildings on
either side, but the silent statues and the dumb reminders of those
who had gone before, who had created this nation and had laid
down their lives that this nation might live, and who had come back
this day to charge the route with their unseen presence. The Navy
Yard, where the commissioners landed, was burned, with the rest of
Washington, by the British in 1814, yet now, barely a century later, its
foundries were roaring night and day in the manufacture of guns to
aid Britain. Swinging from Seventh Street into Pennsylvania Avenue,
there rose in the path of the visitors the splendid dome of the Capitol,
and beneath that dome the representatives of eight-and-forty States
were enacting into law the measures which would send to the aid of
France millions of American soldiers and billions of American dollars.
At the foot of Capitol Hill the envoys passed the Naval Monument,
“In memory of the officers, seamen, and marines who fell in defense
of the Union and Liberty of their country.”
And now Pennsylvania Avenue stretched, broad and straight and
white, before them. At the corner of Tenth Street they found
Benjamin Franklin waiting to greet them, clad in the dress he wore
when sent by the infant republic to solicit the sympathy and aid of
France, and he might have said to them, “We owe our independence
to the men and money which your country gave us.” From his granite
pedestal at the corner of Thirteenth Street, Casimir Pulaski, the
Polish soldier who fell before Savannah, debonair in his busby with
its slanting feather and his swinging dolman, saluted the Frenchmen
as they passed. At the end of the Avenue, opposite the imposing
portico of the Treasury, Sherman sat on his bronze charger, just as
he must have sat, half a century ago, when down this same avenue
swept in the Last Review the war-worn hosts of the Grand Army,
their tattered battle-flags flaunting above the slanting lines of steel,
while the delirious crowds which packed the sidewalks chanted the
marching-song of Sherman’s men:—
“So we made a thoroughfare for Freedom and her train,
Sixty miles in latitude, three hundred to the main;
Treason fled before us, for resistance was in vain,
While we were marching through Georgia.”
Swinging around the corner of the Treasury Building, with a distant
glimpse of the stately Grecian temple reared by a loving people in
memory of their murdered President, the procession passed the
White House, rising, pale and lovely, from amid its trees and flowers.
At the corner of Madison Place our first French friend, Lafayette,
extended a welcoming hand to his countrymen, and awaiting them, a
few rods beyond, was Rochambeau, who commanded the French
armies at Yorktown. In the center of the square Andrew Jackson, the
frontiersman who at New Orleans routed the Peninsular veterans of
Wellington, sat on his prancing horse, guarded by captured cannon,
and raised his cocked hat in hearty greeting. Then past the statue of
Baron von Steuben, the adjutant and friend of Frederick the Great,
who exchanged the glitter of the Prussian Court for the misery of
Valley Forge, and who, were he alive to-day, would, I fancy, once
again be fighting on the side of freedom. A stone’s throw beyond, in
front of the house where Dolly Madison once held her republican
court, stood Kosciusko, the Polish light-horseman, who, when his
sword was no longer needed by America, returned to his own people
and lies buried in the Cathedral of Cracow. Then the cortège, with its
cloud of clattering troopers in blue and yellow, swerved sharply into
Sixteenth Street, the beautiful thoroughfare which should, and some
day doubtless will, be dignified by being named “The Avenue of the
Presidents,” and was lost to sight amid its foliage and its fluttering
flags.
The procession was not as effective as it might have been, first,
because it moved so rapidly as to give the impression that those in
charge of it were worried and anxious to get it over with, and
secondly, because so many generals and admirals and cabinet
ministers were crowded into the automobiles that the people on the
streets had great difficulty in distinguishing them. In a foreign country
there would have been lines of soldiers and police to push the
onlookers back and keep the way clear, but here there was nothing
of the sort, for the men in the crowd acted as their own police and
looked after their guests themselves, which was more democratic
and essentially American. But the most memorable feature of the
affair, when all is said and done, was the extraordinary warmth and
spontaneity of the welcome which the people extended to their
visitors. The sidewalks surged with waving hats and upraised hands
as the cortège passed and the cheers rose into a roar which
drowned the chorus of the motor-horns and the clatter of the cavalry.
The women in the windows and on the balconies waved their
handkerchiefs and cheered, and the men beat the air with their hats
and cheered, and the white-mustached old soldier raised his hand
again and again to the visor of his scarlet képi and smiled at the
people and winked away the tears in his eyes.
In sending Marshal Joffre to the United States, the French
Government did a peculiarly wise and happy thing. Viviani,
Chocheprat, de Chambrun—their names held no significance for
most Americans. But Joffre! Ah, there was a name to conjure with.
The hero of the Marne, the bulwark of civilization, he was the one
figure in the whole world the mere sight of whom would instantly fan
into flame the slumbering fires of American patriotism. In the first
place, he did not come to us as a stranger. We already knew him,
you see, through the illustrated papers and the motion-picture
screens,—a stoutish, white-mustached, twinkling-eyed, benevolent-
looking old gentleman in a great blue coat, walking rather heavily
down lanes of motionless troops with their rifles held rigidly toward
him, or stooping over a hospital cot to pin to the breast of a wounded
soldier a bit of enamel and ribbon,—and seeing him thus, day after
day, he became as familiar to us as Colonel Roosevelt and Andrew
Carnegie and Billy Sunday. And because we recognized that he was,
despite his splendid achievements and his sounding title, a simple,
kindly, homely man, our great admiration for him grew into a sort of
personal affection. He does not dazzle us with the glamour of
Napoleon; he does not pique our curiosity like Kitchener; he does not
appeal to our sympathies like King Albert; the appeal that he makes
is to our hearts and our imaginations. He is—I must have recourse to
a Spanish word to express my meaning—simpatico. We recognize
his greatness, but it does not awe us. We feel that he is “home
folks,” that in the humblest dwelling he would be at home; we would
like to give him the big armchair by the fire and a pair of slippers and
a cigar and visit with him. For he is a man of the people, as simple,
as friendly, as democratic as Lincoln. We remember the story told
about him; that he said that when the Germans had been driven out
of France he wanted no triumphal entry into Paris, but that he
wanted to go fishing. We understand such a man.
This war has been singularly barren of heroic figures, perhaps
because its very magnitude has produced such a multitude of heroes
that no one can be placed before the rest, yet, when this greatest
phase of history comes to be written down with historic perspective,
it is probable that Joseph Joffre will stand forth as its most imposing
figure. As Charles Martel, “the Hammer of God,” saved Europe from
Arab conquest at Tours, and John Sobieski, by turning back the
Turks from the gates of Vienna, saved the cause of Christianity, so
Joffre broke the wave of German invasion at the Marne and saved
mankind from subjection to a no less barbarous despotism. In this
elderly man in the scarlet képi we see one of the world’s great
captains. His fame is immortal; his place in history is secure. Future
generations will point to his visit to these shores as one of the great
events of our history. But I like to think that the delirious enthusiasm
which he everywhere aroused was something more than a tribute to
the greatness of the man and the magnitude of his achievements. I
like to think that the cheers which greeted him meant, rather, that we
welcomed his presence on American soil as a tangible sign that we
had at last returned to the traditions of our fathers, that we had
regained our self-respect, that we had offered the sacrifice which will
save the nation’s soul.
Though the coming of Joffre had in most quarters the effect of a
great spiritual awakening, it was only to be expected that there
should be some who would question the motives which brought him.
These mean-souled little men went about whispering in their mean
and furtive way that the Marshal and his companions were by no
means as disinterested as they would have liked us to believe. When
we hear such cynical intimations, it might be well for us to bear in
mind, however, that in their day the motives of Washington and
Lincoln were repeatedly impugned. But their critics have long since
passed into the limbus of oblivion, while the men they criticized will
live forever in the hearts of their countrymen. That the French hoped
and prayed for our aid they would, I imagine, be the last to deny.
Certainly their need of it was desperate. But the fact that we have
afforded them financial assistance does not justify us in assuming
the airs of philanthropists, for we are nothing of the sort. The money
that we have furnished France is not given, but loaned, just as a
bank loans money to an individual of known responsibility, and,
moreover, every dollar of it is to be expended in the United States,
thus providing employment for millions of our people. That we, who
sent Franklin to implore the aid of the French king, we who accepted
from France a loan which we have never repaid, we who owe our
very existence as a nation to French soldiers, French ships, and
French money, should presume to criticize France for eagerly
accepting what we freely offered, is but to show a lack of gratitude
and of good taste. Nor let us forget that France, the grip of the
invader at her throat and her resources in men and money drained
all but dry, has never, by word or hint, reminded us of our long-
standing obligation.
The purposes which prompted the sending of the French Mission are
set forth by M. Viviani with a grace and beauty of expression which
are peculiarly French. No true American can read his words and not
be thrilled by the sincerity and unselfishness breathed in every line:
—
“We have come to this land to salute the American people and its
government, to call to fresh vigor our life-long friendship, sweet and
cordial in the ordinary course of our lives, but which these tragic
hours have raised to all the ardor of a brotherly love—a brotherly
love which, in these last years of suffering, has multiplied its most
touching expressions. You have given help, not only in treasure, in
every act of kindness and good-will; but for us your children have
shed their blood, and the names of your sacred dead are inscribed
forever in our hearts.”
One feels, upon reading these words, that the glowing tribute is
undeserved. It has taken us three years—three long and bitter years
of agony for France—to recognize what she has known from the
beginning: that the cause for which she is fighting is our cause, that
not merely the future of France but our own future, the future of
democracy, is at stake. We are late in acting, and some historians of
the future will probably be unkind enough to say that we were almost
too late; but let us resolve that we will make up for the tardiness with
which we enter the struggle by the fullness of the strength which we
put into it; that we will spend, if need be, our last dollar and our last
man; and that we will not relax our efforts by a whit until this
Prussian horror is no more.
I believe that we are at heart a people of high ideals. Critics have
said of us that our finer sensibilities have been blunted by our
extraordinary commercial success, that our earlier ideals have been
lost sight of in the business of growing rich, that we prefer the dollar
mark to the laurel wreath. It is true that we have drunk too deeply of
material success, but, thank God, we have come to our senses
before it is too late! We are our true selves once again. We have
shown that the altruism which caused us to go to war with Spain that
Cuba might be free, which led us to pay for the Philippines, already
ours by force of arms, which induced us to return the Boxer
indemnity to China, still guides our actions. We have not entered
upon this war to avenge our murdered citizens; we have not gone
into it for territorial aggrandizement or trade expansion, we have not
gone into it to pay our debt to France; we have gone to war from the
most unselfish motive that ever actuated a nation—the desire to
serve mankind. Our victory—for we never have and we never will
enter upon a losing war—will be a victory of morality and right and
will assure to all our children a world in which they can live in peace
and happiness.
We have been charged with being France-mad. Yet, when you stop
to think about it, there is nothing strange in our attachment for the
French. We are both idealistic and intensely sentimental peoples.
The name of France is indissolubly linked with the early history of
this country. The first religion, the first education, the first attempts at
government, and the first settlement of that vast middle region which
stretches from the Great Lakes to the Gulf were French, and French
influence has extended over its entire existence. A son of France,
Jacques Cartier, was the first European to step beyond the threshold
of the unguessed continent. Our mightiest river was first explored
throughout its length by a Frenchman, and the people who dwell to-
day upon the lands it waters are geographical descendants of
France. At the mouth of this river the metropolis of the South is
named after a city in France; a thousand miles upstream another
busy city keeps on the lips of thousands the name of a French king;
while, still farther to the north, yet a third great hive of industry is
named for the détroit on which it stands, though the Frenchman who
gave it its name would not understand our pronunciation of it. Such
was the domain which France conquered for Civilization. Our
national capital was planned by a Frenchman, and to the vision of
another Frenchman we owe the waterway which links the oceans at
Panama. The debt of America to France, though more direct, is no
less obvious than France’s debt to America, for the American
Revolution inspired the French Revolution, and the spectacle of a
free America under Washington’s administration proved a continual
stimulus to the French in their own struggle for freedom. It is this
solidarity of history, of sentiment, of aspiration which brings the
French and ourselves so close together in this supreme struggle for
liberty.
Even our national colors are the same: that red, white, and blue
which—as some poetic Frenchman has said—symbolizes the rise of
democracy from blood, through peace, to Heaven.
There has been much talk of France having been reborn through the
agony of this war. Therein we are wrong. It is merely that we