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Woodhead Publishing Series in
Biomaterials
EMERGING APPLICATIONS
OF CARBON NANOTUBES IN
DRUG AND GENE DELIVERY
Edited by
PRASHANT KESHARWANI
Assistant Professor, Department of Pharmaceutics,
School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research,
Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
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Contributors
Mohammad A.S. Abourehab

Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah,
Saudi Arabia; Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, College of
Pharmacy, Minia University, Minia, Egypt
Mustafa A. Alheety
Department of Nursing, Al-Hadi University College, Baghdad, Iraq
Duygu Beduk
Department of Biotechnology, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Ege
University, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
Sanghamitra Chatterjee
Department of Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai,
Maharashtra, India
Pavan Kumar Chintamaneni
Department of Pharmaceutics, GITAM School of Pharmacy, GITAM-Hyderabad
Campus, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Rambabu Dandela
Department of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Technology
Mumbai-Indian Oil Odisha Campus, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Mahdieh Darroudi
Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Science,
Mashhad, Iran
Ceren Durmus
Lopamudra Giri
Israel González-Méndez
Instituto de Investigaciones en Materiales, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
Circuito Exterior Ciudad Universitaria, México City, Mexico
Kenguva Gowtham
Simge Balaban Hanoglu
ix
x Contributors
Duygu Harmanci
Central Research Test and Analysis Laboratory Application and Research Center, Ege
Gowtham Kenguva
Prashant Kesharwani
Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Jamia
Hamdard, New Delhi, Delhi, India; University Institute of Pharma Sciences, Chandigarh
University, Mohali, Punjab, India
Renat R. Khaydrov
Institute of Nuclear Physics, Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
Majid Khazaei
Mashhad, Iran; Metabolic Syndrome Research Centre, Mashhad University of Medical
Science, Mashhad, Iran
Praveen T. Krishnamurthy
Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy (JSS Academy of Higher
Education & Research), Ooty, Tamil Nadu, India
G. Kusuma Kumari
Javier Lara-Romero
Facultad de Ingeniería Química, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo,
Morelia, Michoacán, México
Ahmed R. Mahmood
Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Imam Ja’afar Al-Sadiq University,
Kirkuk, Iraq
Abdulwahhab H. Majeed
Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Diyala University, Diyala, Iraq
Leqaa A. Mohammed
Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Diyala University, Diyala, Iraq
Seyedeh Elnaz Nazari
Mashhad, Iran
Ammu V.V. V. Ravi Kiran
Majid Rezayi
Medical Toxicology Research Centre, Mashhad University of Medical Science, Mashhad,
Iran; Metabolic Syndrome Research Centre, Mashhad University of Medical Science,
Contributors xi
Mashhad, Iran; Department of Medical Biotechnology and Nanotechnology, School of

Science, Mashhad University of Medical Science, Mashhad, Iran
Ernesto Rivera
Circuito Exterior Ciudad Universitaria, México City, México
Smruti Rekha Rout
Andrea Ruiu
Circuito Exterior Ciudad Universitaria, México City, México
Amirhossein Sahebkar
Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Science, Mashhad,
Iran; Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad
University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Biotechnology, School of
Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
Kendra Sorroza-Martínez
Circuito Exterior Ciudad Universitaria, México City, Mexico
Suna Timur
Central Research Test and Analysis Laboratory Application and Research Center, Ege
University, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey; Department of Biotechnology, Graduate School of
Natural and Applied Sciences, Ege University, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey; Department of
Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Ege University, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
CHAPTER 1
Background of carbon nanotubes

for drug delivery systems
Mahdieh Darroudi1, Seyedeh Elnaz Nazari1, Prashant Kesharwani2,
Majid Rezayi3, 4, 5, Majid Khazaei1, 4 and Amirhossein Sahebkar6, 7, 8
1
Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Science, Mashhad,
Iran; 2Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Jamia Hamdard,
New Delhi, Delhi, India; 3Medical Toxicology Research Centre, Mashhad University of Medical
Science, Mashhad, Iran; 4Metabolic Syndrome Research Centre, Mashhad University of Medical Science,
Mashhad, Iran; 5Department of Medical Biotechnology and Nanotechnology, School of Science,
Mashhad University of Medical Science, Mashhad, Iran; 6Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad
University of Medical Science, Mashhad, Iran; 7Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical
Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; 8Department of
Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
1.1 Introduction
Biotechnology researchers have developed a keen interest toward nano-
technology and have been focusing on working with nanomaterials in
recent decades [1,2]. Because of their unique properties, nanomaterials are
particularly well-suited for biomedical applications. They are facile to
synthesize, can be modified in size, contain tunable surface chemistry,
provide large surface-to-volume ratios, and are generally biocompatible [3].
All of these features make nanomaterials promising for almost all aspects of
biotechnology, overcoming the many shortcomings in existing conven-
tional materials [4]. Following a pioneering study by Higuchi et al. on
albumin nanoparticles, it was suggested that nanomedicine could be an
effective tool to target tumors and cancer cells as the ability to avoid im-
mune system clearance is enhanced [5]. Nanoparticles have shown to have
positive results against coronary artery disease, and cancer cells, by effec-
tively avoiding clearance from immune system clearance [6e9]. Nano-
particles can be used to deliver a large variety of pharmaceuticals in a way
that is safer (through targeted nanomedicines by limiting the amount of
drug delivered) and more effective [10]. Biological and medical nano-
materials have been used for years, including liposomes [11], carbon
nanoparticles [12e17], dendrimers [18], ceramic nanoparticles [19], iron
oxide nanoparticles [20], titanium dioxide nanoparticles [21], magnetic
nanoparticles, polymer nanocomposites [18], silica and metal nanoparticles
[22]. Additionally, many different types of nanomaterials have been
Emerging Applications of Carbon Nanotubes in Drug and Gene Delivery
ISBN 978-0-323-85199-2 © 2023 Elsevier Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85199-2.00009-1 All rights reserved. 1
2 Emerging Applications of Carbon Nanotubes in Drug and Gene Delivery
proposed as means of drug/gene delivery that respond to external stimuli.

In addition, drugs release from within these nanocarriers are triggered by
changes in pH, redox potential, enzyme activation, thermal gradients,
magnetic fields, light, and ultrasound [23].
Among the nanomaterials, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have drawn
tremendous interest in the biomedical field because of both their promising
properties, including high drug loading capacity [24], high stability [25],
needle-like structure, high surface area [25], biocompatibility [26], flexible
interaction with cargo, considerable strength, outstanding mechanical and
electrical properties [27], and the ability to deliver drugs to specific tissues
[28]. Despite the advantages, it also has some disadvantages related to
toxicity and low biodegradability [29,30]. Although CNTs exhibit some
undesirable properties, they are still being utilized in medicine in innovative
ways, such as in drug delivery systems, gene delivery, gene therapy, diag-
nostic applications, as well as biosensors and vaccine delivery [29]. CNTs
have a variety of appealing properties in biomedical applications, as shown
in Table 1.1.
Though CNTs have several desirable biological properties, their
biosafety is often an issue of concern, particularly in regards to their use and
their biomedical applications. Therefore, a comprehensive assessment of the
in vivo impact of CNTs is required before wide-scale commercial
biomedical applications are undertaken. Studies on CNTs have been crit-
icized for their inaccuracies and incompleteness, ranging from animal
models that aren’t representative of human exposure routes to studies that
lack even a thorough description of the impurities, chemistry, charge, and
dimensions of the studied CNTs [37]. Graphene sheets are rolled seamlessly
as a cylindrical tube to form single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNT), as
well as multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), which are composed
of layers of graphene sheets stacked on one another. Moreover, there are
three main methods for the manufacture of CNTs: chemical vapor depo-
sition (CVD), laser ablation, and arc discharge [38]. In the current chapter
book, we summarize promising and not-so-promising studies showing the
importance of CNTs in a variety of biomedical applications. Many research
studies, particularly performed in year 2016e2022, are assessed with critical
insight into what these studies conclude. Herein, the uptake of CNTs, the
delivery of pharmaceutical agents using CNTs has been covered. We also
discuss concerns raised about the toxicology of CNTs at the end of this
study and outline what and where the field urgently needs to grow.
Background of carbon nanotubes for drug delivery systems 3
Table 1.1 Various applications of carbon nanotubes.

Application Description References
Diagnosing application
Bioimaging Carbon nanotube’s optical, electronic and [31,32]

and biosensing mechanical properties make it a promising
material for the production of
electrochemical and optical biosensors and
some other applications deriving from
CNTs because of their high photostability
and lack of quenching
Therapeutical application
Photothermal CNTs would produce heat by converting [33]
therapy near-infrared radiation (NIR).
Drug delivery The unique needle-like shape of carbon [34]
nanotubes with the ability to quickly
penetrate cell membranes makes them ideal
carriers of drugs/genes due to their high
surface area, multifunctional surface
chemistry, lack of immunogenicity, and high
surface area.
Tissue Carbon nanotubes can be used in tissue [35]
engineering engineering because of their
biocompatibility, stiffness, mimicking of
natural tissue nanofibers, cell adhesion and
proliferation stimulation, and ability to form
3D structures.
Lab-on-chip- Miniaturized systems such as lab-on-a-chip [36]
devices devices are used to examine drugs, grow
cells, and model diseases using tiny volumes
of fluid flowing in various channels. The
CNTs would be used in LOC devices as
membrane channels, sensors, and channels
walls.
1.2 Quantitative approaches

A significant application of nanoparticles is the delivery of drugs; because of
their large surface areas, nanoparticles are capable of delivering large quantities
of drugs or other medical cargos [39,40]. Therefore, developing efficient drug
delivery systems is vital to human health [41]. Theranostic with nanotech-
nology for cancer has emerged as a promising field that could integrate the
treatment and diagnosis of cancer by combining nanotechnologies with

therapeutic agents to enable targeted drug accumulation in cancer-specific
cells without affecting normal cells [42]. Drug delivery procedures should
be significantly improved to ensure sustainability, low disruptions, and precise
and accurate controlled delivery of drugs [43]. Nanomaterial-based drug
delivery systems have recently been studied, and a number of breakthroughs
have been noted thereafter. There have been numerous studies on drug
delivery systems in recent years [44,45]. The bibliometric is insufficient to
assess a research area outputs; it should include other inputs such as literature
reviews to discover the insight of publications trends [46]. This research aims
to explore the research status done in this field of study from past to the current
year by a bibliometric approach and qualitative literature review. To ensure
the reliability of the analysis and input data for the software, scientometric
studies utilizing recognized database such as Google Scholar, ISI Web of
Science, and Scopus have been accessed. This study used the Scopus database
for its extensive coverage and comprehensive content.
From 1965 to 2021, bibliometric searches were conducted in Google
Scholar, Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science Core Collections
(n ¼ 70,300). Data were obtained from the online version of the core
collection in Web of Science on January 15, 2022 [47]. The “Carbon
nanotube*” OR “CNT*” OR “SWCNT*” OR “MWCNT*” to identify
all articles related to treatment from 1990 to 2022 that contain the keyword
in the title list, and 189,358 publications were encountered. Also, articles
using the keyword “Drug Delivery*” AND “Carbon nanotube*” OR
“CNT*” OR “SWCNT*” OR “MWCNT*” to identify all articles from
1990 to 2022 that contain the keyword in the title which, 4748 publica-
tions met the selection criteria. Upon further screening, only 3137 publi-
cations were categorized through “Drug Delivery*” AND “Carbon
Nanotube*” OR “CNT*” OR “MWCNT*” OR “SWCNT*” key-
words that were utilized for further analysis. Moreover, more data for this
study based on title search were derived from SCOPUS, and the time span
was from 1985 to 7rd February 7, 2022. Also, bibliometric studies were
carried out on the Google Scholar and PubMed databases, resulting in
70,300 publications and 1353 publications. This data collection with an
initial title search “Drug Delivery*” in the “Title of Article” has been done
on another well-known database Scopus [47]. There were almost 38,996
documents with the title of “Drug Delivery*”; and nearly 125,277 docu-
ments with the title of “Carbon Nanotube*” while the “CNT*” OR
“MWCNT*” title search terms were used to retrieve the data. The search
returned 3571 documents from SCOPUS database. After careful inspec-

tion, a total of 1846 publications were identified as suitable for subsequent
analysis from SCOPUS database. The search returned 1230 review papers,
201 letters, and 149 conference papers (Fig. 1.1). Besides, Index Keywords
capture an article’s content with greater depth and variety [46].
The total number of records is 1846, and the total number of articles is
1332 in the sample period from 2012 to 2022. There are 160 author
contributions in 160 journals and 10 sub-divisions in the publications. 4637
words were identified as frequently used in this literature, and 1457 in-
stitutions contributed their articles from 62 countries (Fig. 1.2).
In Fig. 1.2c (inset), documents are categorized according to type in a
detailed classification. The articles with 52% and 1441 records represent a
significant portion of the total. Review documents accounted for 36% of
the total records, with 993 records. Total documents numbered 1332 in 7
categories accounted, due to their credibility and acceptance in scientific
communities, articles are strongly preferred as the document type by the
authors.
Record identified throughout database including: Google Scholar 70300, Scupos 125277,
WOS 189358, PubMed 1353
searching n= 386288, 347292 Duplicates removed
38996 articles excluded on the basis of not including

anticancer, drug delivery, or magnetic nanoparticles
3571 Selected Full-text articles assessed for eligibility
1846 Articles
11 Review papers
201 Letters
149 Conference papers
1846 Records included in the Systematic Review
Figure 1.1 Prisma flow diagram.

(a) (b)
600 Conference
Paper
3%
500 Book
Chapter Article
6%
400 Review
Book Chapter
300 Article Conference
Review 52% Paper
200 36% Editorial
Conference
100 Review
(c)
Figure 1.2 (a) The network of keywords, (b) clustering of keywords, and (c) categories
of the subject area, and inset categories by article type.
Keywords are highly influential on the mechanism and effectiveness of

document searches. Keywords serve as critical links among the range of
available documents to be identified as information sources. In Fig. 1.2a, the
top two keywords are carbon nanotubes and drug delivery, with 459 and
337 occurrences, respectively. In order to identify the document imme-
diately and in a timely manner, it is obvious that the exact link words or
phrases should be used. Based on the screening of the 25 top keywords, we
found that the most popular keywords fall into two categories: the com-
pound name and the application of the compound. Another effective
keyword with more than 50 occurrences is carbon nanotube, walled
carbon, single-walled, multi-walled, molecular dynamic, delivery system,

multi-walled carbon, drug release, wall carbon, and cancer therapy. These
keywords will be helpful in identifying the document that best describes
carbon nanotubes and their applications for future researchers. Fig. 1.3
displays the occurrences of the keywords.
To understand the different phases of growth of the publication
numbers, the collected data was organized chronologically. Fig. 1.3 depicts
(a)
16%
14%
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
(b)
Figure 1.3 (a) Trend topic growth between 2012 and 2022, and (b) average article
published per year time span 2012e22.
the schematic representation of yearly increases in record numbers.

Research on carbon nanotube and drug delivery shows a slow onset with
few publications between 2012 and 2016. The trend was downward from
2016 to 2017. As exhibited in the trend topic growth, an increase was
depicted in 2017 based on both keywords carbon nanotube, and drug
delivery system, which there is a good consolidation with publication
trends. By 2022, there will be an increasing trend in publications. The
records showed growth between 2017 and 2020 from 9% to 14%. There
were 135, 164, and 178 records published in 2019, 2020, and 2021,
respectively, and a percentage of 10%, 12%, and 14% was recorded. New
developments and application in drug delivery and carbon nanotubes
related materials explains the increase in publications since 2017.
Fig. 1.4 presents a ranking of the countries involved in carbon nano-
tubes research according to the number of documents they have produced.
India, the United States, and China produce the most documents, with
576, 518, and 514. China had 6257 citations, while the United States had
3419. It is noteworthy that the China achieved a higher ratio of citations to
documents than USA. Iran is ranked 4th overall, followed by the United
Kingdom in 4th place, Italy in 6th place, and South Korea in 7th place.
There has been a noticeable increase in research in Carbon nanotube usage
in the drug delivery system as shown by the reported achievements. The
majority of the contributions originate from China, India, and the United
States. Several country collaboration clusters show the importance of group
research contributions and the current trends. Chart 4C depicting various
clustering patterns of Cluster 1 identifies it as the most productive.
Furthermore, Fig. 1.4a presents a geographic map of the countries involved.
This graph is drawn by the VOSviewer package (www.vosviewer.com),
which is a tool for comprehensive science mapping analysis for quantitative
research in bibliometrics [48,49]. Also, the red color intensity states the four
highest number of related documents published in each country. From the
data in the graph, Fig. 1.4a exhibited that between 50 countries, India,
China, and the United States have specialized studies earlier than other
countries with the most significant number of normalized strong collabo-
ration links to other countries with the rate of 20% of publication. China,
the United States, and Iran have the rate of 18.6%, 18.5%, and 12%,
respectively, after India in the mentioned topic. A three-field plot (Sankey
Diagram) listing the respective institute, authors, and keywords on the
considered topic is shown in Fig. 1.4c. This figure shows the relationship
among top institutes, top authors, and top authors’ keywords. The top five
Figure 1.4 Publication of carbon nanotube in drug delivery system research papers:
top countries and clusters (a and b), and (c) three-field plot of top-author, top-
countries; and top authors’ keywords on the considered topic.
institutes in which these documents were published included “Ministry of

Education China” (58 DOC), “Islamic Azad University” (53 Docs),
“Chinese Academy of Sciences” (42 Docs), “CNRS center national de la
Researche Scientifique” (35 Doc), and “Tehran University of Medical
Sciences” (31 Docs). The top five authors also include Jain, N. K, Mehra,
N. K., Kostarelos, K., Raissi, H., and Bianco, H., based on drug delivery
and carbon nanotube keywords.
Figure 1.4 Cont'd
1.3 CNT morphology and structure

The cylindrical sheet of graphene with carbon atoms bonded as sp2 hy-
bridization is thought to resemble hollow fullerene tubes. The carbon
nanotubes are composed of carbon sheets made from rolled graphite, which
is a source of carbon allotropes as well as graphite and fullerenes [50]. In
many fields, carbon nanotubes are used in the form of buckytubes, with
their cylindrical shape and unique properties. In addition to their me-
chanical, thermal, optical, and electrical properties, they also possess the
following characteristics [51]. High stiffness and robustness abound in
nanotubes, which also permit reversible collapse and buckling. In hexagonal
networks, the high axial Young’s modulus (degree of stiffness) results in
tensile strengths of 150 GPa due to the high CeC bond rigidity [52]. CNTs
are thus among the most rigid materials known while still being able to
buckle (elastic deformation) when subjected to compression forces [53]. In
addition to the rudimentary constituents, carbon assemblies form many
different configurations and shapes [54]. Under high pressure, nanotubes
can be assimilated, resulting in a strong, infinite-length wire by replacing
several sp2 bonds with sp3. The uncovered CNTs were discovered in recent
years by Irjima, who described multi-walled CNTs in carbon soot pro-
duced by the development of the C60 molecule in an arc evaporation
method for the first time [54].
1.4 Classification of CNTs

Nanotubes may indeed be alienated into various classifications based upon
the number of sheets of graphene existent in the CNTs. The following are
therefore sub-divided into:
1.4.1 Single-walled CNTs (SWCNTs)

Single-walled CNTs are formed by orienting a graphene sheet on a single
wall. A catalyst is required for the synthesis of SWCNTs, resulting in a non-
pure CNT without complexity with a readily twisted structure [55].
Sometimes, they appear as fluffy black powder or granular flakes with a
metallic appearance [56]. A variety of SWCNTs are available, which can be
trundled up as a seamless tube in multiple ways. When organized according
to their chirality and diameter, SWCNTs may act more like clearly
delineated semiconducting, metallic, or semi-metallic structures [57]. There
is a new technique published in US patients for preparing arrays or tightly
packed bundles of single-walled CNTs, with a diameter of less than 0.2m
that would be helpful in meeting commercially feasible reaction re-
quirements [51].
1.4.2 Multi-walled CNTs (MWCNTs)

These are the CNTs that contain multilayered graphene rolled over
themselves have varying diameters ranging from 2 to 50 nm which in turn
depends on the number of tubes [58]. Its synthesis is catalyst-free, and the
MWCTs are highly complex and cannot be twisted easily [51]. These tubes
have a distance of approximately 0.34 nm in between layers [59]. Their
typical form appears in form of fluffy black and granular powders. There are
MWCNTs of two different types based on the graphitic sheet arrangement
pattern. As an example of this, we can look at the Russian-doll model
where the graphitic sheets form concentrically aligned sheets, for example, a
length of (0, 14) SWCNT surrounding a shorter length (0, 12) SWCNT.
Graphite is rolled around itself in the second model, resembling a scroll of
parchment or a rolled-up newspaper [60].
1.4.3 Double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWCNTs)

There is another type of CNT that is similar to SWCNTs which also has
two concentric layers that enclose both the inner and outer tubes of these
nanotubes. These nanotubes are of serious concern in the pharmaceutical
industry [55].
1.4.4 CNT types based on chirality

Chirality is a crucial factor in determining the electrical properties of CNTs.
Depending on the chirality, CNTs can be categorized as an armchair,
zigzag, and chiral, as illustrated in Fig. 1.5 [60]. In the armchair, an
arrangement of bonds in one of the chairs is perpendicular to the tube axis;
in zigzag, there is an arrangement of bonds in which the tube has a V shape
perpendicular to the tube axis. Chiral or helical configuration are both
contrary to the above two types [57,61]. Conductivity and electrical
characteristics of CNTs are both effective indicators of CNT chirality and
may be used as a basis for nanoelectronic devices [62,63]. Based on their
structural transformations, preparation technique, and solubility character-
istics, CNTs are categorized into specific contexts, such as functionalized,
surfactant-assisted, solvent dispersed, and biomolecular assisted nanotubes
[64].
Armchair
Zigzag
(a) Armchair (b) Chiral
(c) SWCNTs (d) MWCNTs

Figure 1.5 Type of carbon nanotubes.
1.5 Drug loading on carbon nanotubes

The term “drug loading” refers to the combination of drug and carrier,
which delivers the active medication to the target cells or tissues. CNTs are
widely used for this purpose, particularly for large-scale drug delivery
because of their high surface-to-volume ratio and sphere-shaped shape [65].
Moreover, amphiphilic or hydrophilic polymers on CNT surfaces can in-
crease their loading capacity [66,67]. In addition to this, the chemical
functionalization of nanotubes’ surfaces could also enhance CNTs’
biocompatibility [68,69]. Modification of CNTs can be achieved through
the covalent attachment of PEG layers on their surface, PAMAM den-
drimers on their surface, amphiphilic deblock copolymers on their surface,
or dispersing the modified materials in a matrix of hyaluronic acid. The
mechanical strength of CNTs, like SWCNTs, enhances the properties of
both polymeric and non-polymeric composites [70]. It is also noteworthy
that these nanomaterials can also carry pharmaceutical agents by encapsu-
lating them within hollow cavities [71], adsorbing them within the walls of
CNTs, and binding them to their surfaces upon functionalization [72]. A
drug delivery system involving encapsulation has more advantages because
the drugs are released in a specific way within the targeted cells while
preventing their degradation [73]. Table 1.2 shows how therapeutic drugs
Table 1.2 Mechanism of loading drug.

Type of carbon Process of
Entry Drug nanotube immobilization References
1 Pregabalin SWCNT Encapsulation [74]
2 Doxorubicin Armchair and Adsorption [75]
zigzag CNT
3 Ifosfamide Armchair Encapsulation [76]
SWCNT
4 Paclitaxel f-MWCNT Encapsulation [77]
5 Doxorubicin Covalent-f- Adsorption and [78]
MWCNT encapsulating of drug
6 Cisplatin Carboxyl-f- Encapsulation [79]
MWCNTs
7 Doxorubicin MWCNT-FA Encapsulation [80]
8 Ciprofloxacin PEG/Gel- Grafting in [81]
Chit- nanocomposite matrix
MWCNT
9 Doxorubicin f-SWCNT Encapsulation [82]
would be attached to different types of carbon nanotubes. Various chemical

and electrical methods are available for controlling the release of drugs from
CNTs. CNTs can also be sealed with polypyrrole (PPy) film in order to
prevent drug release [83]. Drug delivery systems could be made more se-
lective by using homing devices, such as epidermal growth factor (EGF), or
folic acid [84]. A wide range of biomedical applications may be possible for
CNTs as a drug delivery carriers.
Unlike encapsulation or “endohedral modification” [73], these CNTs
serve to maintain the structural integrity of drugs, which helps to minimize
their degradation and in turn maximize their release from within them
under controlled conditions [85]. Due to hydrophobic and capillary forces,
this approach is most useful for drugs with low surface tension. For instance,
Fig. 1.6 shows how nanoparticles of gold are incorporated into the carbon
nano bottles to prevent the uncontrolled release of the encapsulated drug
(cisplatin) [86]. When the drugs are loaded by exohedral modification (as
opposed to encapsulation), it becomes much more exposed. Tethering
refers to covalent interactions with noncovalently attached drugs; as one of
the bio-conjugation methods. A further step of oxidation is required in the
tethering process before functional groups can be produced for conjugation.
Additionally, a covalent bond may change the drug’s molecular structure,
thereby altering its bioactivity and specificity [87]. This tethering approach
is superior due to strong covalent bonds that produce a stable platform
Figure 1.6 Schematic illustration of cisplatin delivery system and possible internali-
zation method of carbon nanotube including loading of the drug on the surface of
carbon nanotube, then cisplatin carried inside, in vivo study of current nanocarrier and
pH-responsive releasing drug leading to decreasing of tumor size.
between nanocarriers and drugs rather than the non-covalent method,

which ultimately causes the undesirable dissociation of therapeutic agents in
biological fluids. CNTs are generally used to deliver drugs to target cells in
the following way. Modified CNTs contain chemical receptors that attach
to drug molecules. Drug molecules are transported by these chemical re-
ceptors inside nanotubes [88]. Depending on the method used, the received
conjugate can be injected into the body through injection, oral adminis-
tration, or directly upon contact with the targeted cell. Using the endo-
cytosis pathway, the drug-loaded into CNT capsules can be internalized by
the chemical receptors and eventually emitted by the cells [88]. Fig. 1.6 is a
schematic illustration of an effective drug delivery system.
1.5.1 CNTs and cellular uptake

It is crucial to understand how drugs are taken up by the projected cells to
comprehend drug pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. There must be
a better understanding of biochemical pathways and drug permeation across
cellular membranes. Drugs with high solubility are thought to be absorbed
primarily through diffusion through the lipid bilayer. However, in the case of
high molecular weight drugs, such mechanism is impaired, as low lip-
ophilicity interferes in passing through the bilayer structure [89]. CNTs have
remarkable properties that allow them to be absorbed by a wide variety of
cells. CNTs can penetrate cell membranes efficiently because of their needle-
like shape, which can be either good or bad depending on the intended
application. Hence, CNTs are suitable for a range of biomedical applications,
including the delivery of therapeutic agents and genes [90]. Although many
studies have been conducted on cellular uptake, there are still many questions
regarding cellular pathways initiated by CNTs and the delivery of therapeutic
agents and genes [91]. Furthermore, not only is it essential to determine how
cells take up CNTs, but if the CNTs will deliver drugs viably to the cells.
Therefore, it is extremely important to carefully study CNT internalization.
Several (not one) pathways, depending on the properties of the CNTs, have
been elucidated for cellular uptake of CNTs [92]. Some comprehensive re-
views show that there is no single mechanism for cellular uptake of CNTs.
In particular, CNTs can be internalized via various mechanisms, including
(1) direct penetration through the cell membrane or (2) passive and active
uptake, which have also been called independent and dependent pathways,
accordingly [93]. Below is a summary of the current literature on CNT entry
into various cells, emphasizing dimensions, cell types, and CNT faces (Fig. 1.7).
Figure 1.7 Cellular uptake of carbon nanotube into endocytic vesicles.
The distribution of CNTs within cells can occur either passively

through diffusion across the cell membrane lipid bilayer or through needle
mechanisms. CNTs overcome such barriers due to their needle-like
structure and high respect ratios [27]. CNTs can also be internalized by
endocytosis, which can be classified into five groups: phagocytoses, pino-
cytosis, caveolin-mediated endocytosis, clathrin/clathrin-mediated endo-
cytosis, and clathrin/caveolae independent. A phagocytic pathway is the
process in which large particles (w1 mm) enter cells. It predominantly
occurs within neutrophils, macrophages, and monocytes. Cellular uptake
occurs primarily through receptor-mediated endocytosis, which involves
clathrin-coated endocytic vacuoles. Caveolae gets invaded by nanomaterials
60 nm in diameter, which contains high levels of cholesterol and sphin-
golipids. The Caveolin-mediated endocytosis process is responsible for
transporting vesicular material and entrapping viruses and bacteria. Caveolin
and clathrin are known to play a role in cellular endocytosis and can
facilitate the internalization of CNTs with a diameter of 100 nm.
The macropinocytosis mechanism is thought to take up CNTs that are larger
than 300 nm. While the entry of CNTs and their drug cargo may offer many
advantages, each mechanism also has drawbacks that should be considered. There
are several features that influence cellular uptakes, such as CNT types (MWCNTs
or SWCNTs), dimension, surface charge, surface functionalization, degree of
aggregation, functional group chemistry, cell type, and agglomeration [94].
1.5.2 Size of CNTs

The previous studies demonstrated that CNTs with a smaller diameter
result in a higher cellular uptake [22,95]. A number of mechanisms are
involved in the passage of short CNTs through cell membranes, but active
endocytosis, particularly clathrin-mediated endocytosis, is generally the
most important [96,97]. Indeed, the shorter the CNT, the greater the
chance of passive internalization. In this regard, Zhang et al. evaluated cell
uptake based on CNT particle size and compared CNT particle sizes of
eight types, consisting of MWCNTs and SWCNTs, with macrophages
(RAW264.7), ranging in sizes from 30 to 400 nm. Their results indicated
that macrophages were able to take up CNTs in more significant quan-
tities when their particle size increased after increasing cytotoxicity, with
energy-dependent phagocytosis as the primary mechanism of cellular
uptake [98].
1.5.3 Degree of agglomeration and aggregation

The degree of agglomeration and aggregation of CNTs may affect their
internalization. A study by Song et al. found that higher concentrations of
O-MWCNTs resulted in higher uptake within human epithelial cervical
cancer cells (HeLa). However, these cells were not cytotoxic at concen-
trations of less than 150 mg/mL [99]. The amount of agglomeration and
toxicity increased slightly when the concentration of O-MWCNTs was
raised to 150 mg/mL. According to their findings, agglomeration assisted
endocytosis of O-MWCNTs occurred due to their ability to interact
effectively with cells. A regulated agglomeration of CNTs in some delivery
systems is capable of facilitating the delivery of drugs/genes through their
high uptake and low toxicity. A study conducted by Kuroda et al.
demonstrated that aggregated CNTs enhances uptake in RAW264 cells
[100]. This suggests that aggregation would be effective on uptake
mechanisms.
1.5.4 Surface charge

CNTs can be modified for their surface charge by altering the electrostatic
interactions and dispersibility. Consequently, the surface charge would be
relevant to the uptake of NTs by cells, as well as other biological processes
[101]. The SWCNTs were functionalized by Budhathoki-Uprety et al.
using polycarbodiimide polymers with carboxylic acids (COOH-CNT) or
primary amines (NH2-CNT) attached to their side chains, which these
complexes have surface charges of approximately 66.8 and 52.8 mV,

respectively [102,103]. Cationic nanotubes could be more readily incor-
porated into HeLa cells than anionic nanotubes. However, serum proteins
in the culture media adsorb CNTs in the cell culture media and influence
cellular uptake of these CNTs. It is important to remember that the pro-
teins adsorb to the nanomaterials that cells recognize, not the nanomaterial
itself. That is referred to as the “protein corona effect” of nanomaterials, a
layer of proteins adsorbed to a nanomaterial when exposed to body fluids
[104]. CNTs can therefore be designed so that they can be taken up by
cells. Consequently, CNTs can be designed to deliver drugs efficiently
when their surface chemistry is taken into account. The reactivity of
nanomaterials’ surfaces with cellular membranes contributes to their
toxicity. It is the nonbiodegradability of CNTs that gives them their
toxicological properties. The binding of blood proteins influences biolog-
ical pathways of the CNTs, and cytotoxicity can therefore be decreased as a
result [105]. According to Ge et al., blood proteins bind to the surface of
SWCNTs, enabling changes to their cellular interactions. This ultimately
reduces their cytotoxicity in two different human cell lines, including
human umbilical vein endothelial and acute human monocyte leukemia
(THP-1) cells.
1.5.5 Cell type

Cellular uptake rates and mechanisms may vary by the cellular system [106].
The internalization of CNTs was evaluated in human lung cancer cells
A549, human lung cancer cells Calu-6, human breast cells MCF-7, and
mouse macrophages J774 by Summers et al. He in his work demonstrated
that the highest CNT uptake occurred in the J774 cell line [101]. After
exposure to CNTs for 24 h, A549 cells had a w40% lower uptake than
J774 (which showed the highest uptake). There was no significant differ-
ence between the MCF-7 and Calu-6 cells, but both types comprised of
about 30% J774 CNTs. Additionally, macrophages could take up SWCNTs
more efficiently than fibroblasts. Although macrophages preferentially
phagocytose particles with a diameter of over 500 nm, fibroblasts primarily
endocytose particles with a diameter of 200 nm and less [107]. In addition,
J774 cells can take up larger particles and also the aggregates of CNTs. By
aggregating CNTs within phagocytic cells, nanoparticles are retained
within them, which makes them ideal carriers for CNT transportation into
tumor cells.
CNTs and their cellular uptake have been analyzed using a wide range
of techniques, including atomic force microscopy, transmission electron
microscopy, dynamic light scattering, fluorescence microscopy, surface-
enhanced Raman scattering, and confocal Raman spectroscopy. The
characterization and visualization of cellular uptake of CNTs are based on
some characteristics of CNTs, such as optical characteristics [107e109]. The
evolution of nanotechnology began with improvements in microscopy, and
this here depicts is no lesser truth in terms of CNT cellular
internationalization.
1.6 Drug delivery using carbon nanotubes

In recent decades, biomedical researchers have focused significant attention
on using CNTs for various purposes due to their high electrical, physico-
chemical, and mechanical properties and the high aspect ratio of CNTs. In
addition, they have been used as nanocarriers for the delivery of several
plasmid DNAs [110], proteins [111], peptides [112], siRNAs [113], and API
[114].
1.6.1 Antineoplastic APIs

Worldwide, cancer ranks second behind cardiovascular diseases. Various
unwanted toxic effects have been observed in the surrounding healthy
tissues as a result of APIs therapy [115]. One of the most challenging aspects
of therapeutic research remains drug delivery to cancerous cells [116]. This
is because tumor cells express P-glycoprotein (P-gp), which will block the
entry of therapeutic agents into the tissue. Therefore, most of the tumor-
targeted antineoplastic agents are unexpectedly destroyed before they can
kill the targeted cells. For the treatment of cancer, innovative technologies
are needed for delivering therapeutic agents [117].
Different nanomaterials have previously been utilized as drug delivery
agents. A wide variety of antineoplastic agents can be loaded in CNTs,
including doxorubicin, cisplatin, methotrexate, and camptothecin. As an
example, cisplatin has been used to treat a variety of cancer-related disor-
ders. Cisplatin stimulates cellular death by inhibiting DNA replication and
cross-linking between DNA strands. Despite its anticancer effect, this drug
produces many side effects, including ototoxic, nephrotoxic, and neuro-
toxic effects.
The chloride ions in plasma can obliterate the therapeutic effect of drugs
by causing an interference in their interaction with water. Due to this,
CNTs are used as drug carriers to reduce side effects by preventing the
deactivation of therapeutic agents. In one study, the synthesis of func-
tionalized SWCNTs containing cisplatin to target prostate cancer cell lines
PC3 and DU145 was reported. Cisplatin acts by penetrating deep within
the cellular membrane and selectively accumulating within the cytoplasm of
cancerous prostate cells based on findings of cellular uptake studies.
Therefore, the encapsulation of cisplatin has proved to be very effective
factor in stabilizing its administration to cancerous prostate cells [118].
It has also been extensively used for treating cancer with doxorubicin
drug as an anticancer therapeutic agent. The chemical structure of doxo-
rubicin has been shown in (Fig. 1.4b). The non-covalent complexation of
MWCNTs and functionalized SWCNTs with polyethylene glycol (PEG)
was also demonstrated by Hwang [119]. In an investigation, it was found
that MWCNTs combined with doxorubicin work better against cancerous
cells than doxorubicin alone. SWCNTs have been synthesized and modi-
fied with different types of polysaccharides as well as with doxorubicin and
folic acid in recent years [120]. In some cases, the release of therapeutic
agents from within these nanocarriers was reported to be pH dependent. In
this regard, CNTs are functionalized on the surface to control the rate of
drug release and loading efficiency. According to Fabbro et al. research
[116], a novel method is essential for improving the construction and
characterization of modified CNTs to allow them to be applied
therapeutically.
1.6.2 Anti-inflammatory APIs

Many studies have been conducted in order to enhance cellular uptake
properties over the years. In addition to improving the molecule release
profile, this also helps in reducing side effects [121]. Meanwhile, researchers
have also been looking at CNTs as a means of delivering anti-inflammatory
APIs. Zanella et al. (2007) investigated an anti-inflammatory drug known as
nimesulide on both Si-doped capped and pristine SWCNTs using first-
principal calculations (DFT). Based on DFT calculations, they reported
the use of CNTs as potential carriers for aromatic residues and have also
demonstrated improved physisorption with Si-doped SWCNTs due to
their electronic properties [122].
Due to the inefficiency of conventional administration strategies, anti-
inflammatory delivery systems provide stable plasma levels of the thera-
peutic agent over a longer period of time, allowing for extended drug
release profile. Additionally, osmotic pressure from the membrane sur-

rounding the therapeutic agent causes the drug to be absorbed from the
carrier. In one investigation, Madaenia et al. increased the hydrophilicity of
MWCNT by adding cellulose acetate, which resulted in increased indo-
methacin release from the membrane [123].
One alternative drug release technique called “stimulated drug release”
involves releasing therapeutic agents from a vehicle in response to various
stimuli, such as temperature, pH, and other physiological conditions.
Increasingly complex and intelligent systems can also be derived from
electrical signals and through microsystems [124]. Electrical signals have
stimulated dexamethasone release via SWCNTs-chitosan hydrogel films
developed by Arti Vashist and colleagues. In this paper, the authors
investigated whether electrostatic interactions would encompass indo-
methacin on functionalized SWCNTs. The CNTs are fully reversible once
the charge is activated, and as a result, indomethacin is released due to
electrostatic repulsion. Accordingly, SWCNTs can produce electrical sig-
nals that can control the release of therapeutic agents, improving the
bioavailability of active molecules [125].
1.6.3 Cardiovascular APIs

Cardiovascular diseases are heart and blood vessel disorders that cause death
in a large number of people worldwide [91]. In recent years, conventional
medicine has become the preferred method of treating cardiovascular dis-
ease. However, in the treatment of atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular
disorders, the use of anti-cardiovascular medications is confined by their
failure to cross the endothelium layers effectively. Using rosiglitazone, for
example, to treat atheroma through macrophage infiltration into athero-
sclerotic wounds, the drug acts as an agonist of the peroxisome proliferator-
activated receptor. The mechanism of action of this therapeutic agent may
be viewed through its toxicity to normal healthy cardiovascular tissues,
which can then result in the development of undesirable side effects such as
fluid retention (fluid retention) and heart failure [93,94].
Another delivery system is the macromolecular and thiomersal [126] and
utilization of silica particles within the delivery system [96] to deliver anti
cardiovascular drugs. In cardiology, nanoparticles based on silica are used to
deliver annexin V, which is crucial for achieving nanomaterials [127]. One
study described how CNTs have progressed impacts on treating cardio-
vascular disease [128]. Additionally, Liu et al. investigated the feasibility of
interactions between SWCNTs and nifedipine in order to further under-

stand: (1) interaction between CNTs and nifedipine, (2) absorption of the
therapeutic agent by the CNTs, and (3) the process of energy translocation.
It is mainly used to treat angina pectoris, hypertension, and other cardio-
vascular disorders by antagonizing calcium channels. CNTs spontaneously
encapsulate and adsorb nifedipine via van der Waals interactions by their
internal cavity [129].
However, modified nanotubes are better at encapsulating therapeutic
agents than pristine MWCNTs due to their hydrophilic nature [130]. The
researchers used pristine and oxidized CNTs in the same study to investi-
gate the loading mechanism of the therapeutic agent carvedilol. This drug
works principally as an adrenoceptor/vasodilator antagonist for treating
hypertension but may be beneficial to protecting the heart and nervous
system as well. For the loading of carvedilol into the internal cavity of
CNTs, the mentioned study used three different approaches, namely a
solvent method, a wetness impregnation method, and a fusion method.
Each approach contributes to the differences in loading capacity and car-
vedilol’s physical state.
1.6.4 Anti-infective APIs

The emergence of strong microorganisms that are resistant to many broad-
spectrum antibiotics makes it even more challenging to treat infectious
diseases in this modern age. In contrast, APIs that are used to treat infection
tend to have poor physisorption by the cells because of their poor solubility
and penetration [131]. Antibiotics remain a crucial part of modern medi-
cine. Even so, the invention of new therapeutic agents is a long and costly
process involving long-term laboratory studies and clinical trials. Conse-
quently, currently available carbon-based nanomaterials like CNTs are used
to deliver therapeutic agents in infected areas, that can in turn help over-
come bacterial resistance, and enhance drug solubility [132,133]. Ampho-
tericin B is a common agent used for treating fungal infections that is less
soluble in water. It is not recommended to administer this drug parenterally
because the chances of aggregation in the bloodstream is high. This issue has
been addressed through several strategies, including formulation of
amphotericin B with MWCNT: to increase its cellular uptake, enhance its
therapeutic effect against different pathogens, enhance its dispersion in
water, and reduce aggregation in the bloodstream after administering
parenterally [134]. In addition to Candida albicans, Candida parapsilosis
ATCC 90118, and Cryptococcus neoformans ATCC 90112, conjugation
of Amphotericin B and MWCNT has been reported to have significant

antifungal effects. Furthermore, API modified with MWCNTs showed no
toxicity to mammalian cells when absorbed rapidly by cell membranes.
MWCNTs can protect therapeutic agents, such as dapsone, from being
metabolized by antibacterial agents. Thus, in the liver, the cytotoxicity is
substantially reduced due to an increase in anti-mycobacterial activity [133].
1.6.5 Gene therapy

A new technology, gene therapy, was developed in the 1980s that allowed
cells to deliver nucleic acids to treat genetic defects. Viruses and non-viral
genetic systems require reliable and robust delivery systems to transport
nucleic acid into their targeted cells. The transport of genes within the cell
is also studied extensively with nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes,
polymeric nanoparticles, and liposomes. Their immunogenicity, nucleic
acid diameters, and suitability for scale-up processes make them excellent
choices for nanoarchitecture [135]. It is generally recognized that cationic
polyelectrolytes like dendrimers, protamine sulfate, and polylysine offer us
an option for developing non-viral mechanisms of DNA delivery [136].
These systems enhance the ability of the cell to absorb DNA by endocytosis
and safely transport it to the nucleus following non-covalent binding with
the nucleic acid. There are several polycationic functionalized carbon
nanotubes that have demonstrated the capacity to transport human DNA
plasmids using polycationic carbon nanotubes. The findings demonstrate
the transport of plasmid DNA around carbon nanotubes and the success of
the therapeutic system to increase gene expression in marker genes. These
studies confirm the feasibility and effectiveness of this approach [137].
1.6.6 The delivery system using conjugated CNT-liposomes

As an excellent vehicle for therapeutic agent delivery, CNTs are exten-
sively explored due to their ease of transport by cellular membranes. CNTs
bind to the covalent structure of liposomes and form conjugates with them
[138]. Covalently attached liposomes are a reliable method for delivering
therapeutic agents across cellular membranes. CNT can be loaded with a
wide range of drugs which can be used to treat specific targets due to the
cavity inside each CNT. CNTs modified in this way have opened up new
possibilities in biological investigation. Various functionalized-CNT devices
are reported to have demonstrated stable biological applications, including
better cellular uptake of drugs and nucleic acid delivery [117,139,140].
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corner with some object which Jane could not distinguish in the dim
light.
“What have you got there, dear?” she asked.
“Wah,” said little Braid, a child of few words, proceeding with his
activities.
Jane rose and walked across the room. A sudden feeling had
come to her, the remorseful feeling that for some time now she had
been neglecting the child. How seldom nowadays did she trouble to
join in his pastimes!
“Let mother play too,” she said, gently. “What are you playing?
Trains?”
“Golf.”
Jane uttered a sharp exclamation. With a keen pang she saw that
what the child had got hold of was William’s spare mashie. So he
had left it behind after all! Since the night of his departure it must
have been lying unnoticed behind some chair or sofa.
For a moment the only sensation Jane felt was an accentuation of
that desolate feeling which had been with her all day. How many a
time had she stood by William and watched him foozle with this club!
Inextricably associated with him it was, and her eyes filled with
sudden tears. And then she was abruptly conscious of a new, a more
violent emotion, something akin to panic fear. She blinked, hoping
against hope that she had been mistaken. But no. When she opened
her eyes and looked again she saw what she had seen before.
The child was holding the mashie all wrong.
“Braid!” gasped Jane in an agony.
All the mother-love in her was shrieking at her, reproaching her.
She realised now how paltry, how greedily self-centred she had
been. Thinking only of her own pleasures, how sorely she had
neglected her duty as a mother! Long ere this, had she been worthy
of that sacred relation, she would have been brooding over her child,
teaching him at her knee the correct Vardon grip, shielding him from
bad habits, seeing to it that he did not get his hands in front of the
ball, putting him on the right path as regarded the slow back-swing.
But, absorbed in herself, she had sacrificed him to her shallow
ambitions. And now there he was, grasping the club as if it had been
a spade and scooping with it like one of those twenty-four handicap
men whom the hot weather brings out on seaside links.
She shuddered to the very depths of her soul. Before her eyes
there rose a vision of her son, grown to manhood, reproaching her.
“If you had but taught me the facts of life when I was a child, mother,”
she seemed to hear him say, “I would not now be going round in a
hundred and twenty, rising to a hundred and forty in anything like a
high wind.”
She snatched the club from his hands with a passionate cry. And
at this precise moment in came Rodney Spelvin, all ready for tea.
“Ah, little one!” said Rodney Spelvin, gaily.
Something in her appearance must have startled him, for he
stopped and looked at her with concern.
“Are you ill?” he asked.
Jane pulled herself together with an effort.
“No, quite well. Ha, ha!” she replied, hysterically.
She stared at him wildly, as she might have stared at a caterpillar
in her salad. If it had not been for this man, she felt, she would have
been with William in their snug little cottage, a happy wife. If it had
not been for this man, her only child would have been laying the
foundations of a correct swing under the eyes of a conscientious pro.
If it had not been for this man—She waved him distractedly to the
door.
“Good-bye,” she said. “Thank you so much for calling.”
Rodney Spelvin gaped. This had been the quickest and most
tealess tea-party he had ever assisted at.
“You want me to go?” he said, incredulously.
“Yes, go! go!”
Rodney Spelvin cast a wistful glance at the gate-leg table. He had
had a light lunch, and the sight of the seed-cake affected him deeply.
But there seemed nothing to be done. He moved reluctantly to the
door.
“Well, good-bye,” he said. “Thanks for a very pleasant afternoon.”
“So glad to have seen you,” said Jane, mechanically.
The door closed. Jane returned to her thoughts. But she was not
alone for long. A few minutes later there entered the female cubist
painter from downstairs, a manly young woman with whom she had
become fairly intimate.
“Oh, Bates, old chap!” said the cubist painter.
Jane looked up.
“Yes, Osbaldistone?”
“Just came in to borrow a cigarette. Used up all mine.”
“So have I, I’m afraid.”
“Too bad. Oh, well,” said Miss Osbaldistone, resignedly, “I suppose
I’ll have to go out and get wet. I wish I had had the sense to stop
Rodney Spelvin and send him. I met him on the stairs.”
“Yes, he was in here just now,” said Jane.
Miss Osbaldistone laughed in her hearty manly way.
“Good boy, Rodney,” she said, “but too smooth for my taste. A little
too ready with the salve.”
“Yes?” said Jane, absently.
“Has he pulled that one on you yet about your being the original of
the heroine of The Purple Fan?”
“Why, yes,” said Jane, surprised. “He did tell me that he had drawn
Eulalie from me.”
Her visitor emitted another laugh that shook the samovars.
“He tells every girl he meets the same thing.”
“What!”
“Oh yes. It’s his first move. He actually had the nerve to try to
spring it on me. Mind you, I’m not saying it’s a bad stunt. Most girls
like it. You’re sure you’ve no cigarettes? No? Well, how about a shot
of cocaine? Out of that too? Oh, well, I’ll be going, then. Pip-pip,
Bates.”
“Toodle-oo, Osbaldistone,” said Jane, dizzily. Her brain was
reeling. She groped her way to the table, and in a sort of trance cut
herself a slice of cake.
“Wah!” said little Braid Vardon. He toddled forward, anxious to
count himself in on the share-out.
Jane gave him some cake. Having ruined his life, it was, she felt,
the least she could do. In a spasm of belated maternal love she also
slipped him a jam-sandwich. But how trivial and useless these things
seemed now.
“Braid!” she cried, suddenly.
“What?”
“Come here.”
“Why?”
“Let mother show you how to hold that mashie.”
“What’s a mashie?”
A new gash opened in Jane’s heart. Four years old, and he didn’t
know what a mashie was. And at only a slightly advanced age Bobby
Jones had been playing in the American Open Championship.
“This is a mashie,” she said, controlling her voice with difficulty.
“Why?”
“It is called a mashie.”
“What is?”
“This club.”
“Why?”
The conversation was becoming too metaphysical for Jane. She
took the club from him and closed her hands over it.
“Now, look, dear,” she said, tenderly. “Watch how mother does it.
She puts the fingers—”
A voice spoke, a voice that had been absent all too long from
Jane’s life.
“You’ll pardon me, old girl, but you’ve got the right hand much too
far over. You’ll hook for a certainty.”
In the doorway, large and dripping, stood William. Jane stared at
him dumbly.
“William!” she gasped at length.
“Hullo, Jane!” said William. “Hullo, Braid! Thought I’d look in.”
There was a long silence.
“Beastly weather,” said William.
“Yes,” said Jane.
“Wet and all that,” said William.
There was another silence.
“Oh, by the way, Jane,” said William. “Knew there was something I
wanted to say. You know those violets?”
“Violets?”
“White violets. You remember those white violets I’ve been
sending you every year on our wedding anniversary? Well, what I
mean to say, our lives are parted and all that sort of thing, but you
won’t mind if I go on sending them—what? Won’t hurt you, what I’m
driving at, and’ll please me, see what I mean? So, well, to put the
thing in a nutshell, if you haven’t any objection, that’s that.”
Jane reeled against the gate-leg table.
“William! Was it you who sent those violets?”
“Absolutely. Who did you think it was?”
“William!” cried Jane, and flung herself into his arms.
William scooped her up gratefully. This was the sort of thing he
had been wanting for weeks past. He could do with a lot of this. He
wouldn’t have suggested it himself, but, seeing that she felt that way,
he was all for it.
“William,” said Jane, “can you ever forgive me?”
“Oh, rather,” said William. “Like a shot. Though, I mean to say,
nothing to forgive, and all that sort of thing.”
“We’ll go back right away to our dear little cottage.”
“Fine!”
“We’ll never leave it again.”
“Topping!”
“I love you,” said Jane, “more than life itself.”
“Good egg!” said William.
Jane turned with shining eyes to little Braid Vardon.
“Braid, we’re going home with daddy!”
“Where?”
“Home. To our little cottage.”
“What’s a cottage?”
“The house where we used to be before we came here.”
“What’s here?”
“This is.”
“Which?”
“Where we are now.”
“Why?”
“I’ll tell you what, old girl,” said William. “Just shove a green-baize
cloth over that kid, and then start in and brew me about five pints of
tea as strong and hot as you can jolly well make it. Otherwise I’m
going to get the cold of a lifetime.”
CHAPTER IX
THE PURIFICATION OF RODNEY SPELVIN
It was an afternoon on which one would have said that all Nature
smiled. The air was soft and balmy; the links, fresh from the rains of
spring, glistened in the pleasant sunshine; and down on the second
tee young Clifford Wimple, in a new suit of plus-fours, had just sunk
two balls in the lake, and was about to sink a third. No element, in
short, was lacking that might be supposed to make for quiet
happiness.
And yet on the forehead of the Oldest Member, as he sat beneath
the chestnut tree on the terrace overlooking the ninth green, there
was a peevish frown; and his eye, gazing down at the rolling
expanse of turf, lacked its customary genial benevolence. His
favourite chair, consecrated to his private and personal use by
unwritten law, had been occupied by another. That is the worst of a
free country—liberty so often degenerates into licence.
The Oldest Member coughed.
“I trust,” he said, “you find that chair comfortable?”
The intruder, who was the club’s hitherto spotless secretary,
glanced up in a goofy manner.
“Eh?”
“That chair—you find it fits snugly to the figure?”
“Chair? Figure? Oh, you mean this chair? Oh yes.”
“I am gratified and relieved,” said the Oldest Member.
There was a silence.
“Look here,” said the secretary, “what would you do in a case like
this? You know I’m engaged?”
“I do. And no doubt your fiancée is missing you. Why not go in
search of her?”
“She’s the sweetest girl on earth.”
“I should lose no time.”
“But jealous. And just now I was in my office, and that Mrs.
Pettigrew came in to ask if there was any news of the purse which
she lost a couple of days ago. It had just been brought to my office,
so I produced it; whereupon the infernal woman, in a most unsuitably
girlish manner, flung her arms round my neck and kissed me on my
bald spot. And at that moment Adela came in. Death,” said the
secretary, “where is thy sting?”
The Oldest Member’s pique melted. He had a feeling heart.
“Most unfortunate. What did you say?”
“I hadn’t time to say anything. She shot out too quick.”
The Oldest Member clicked his tongue sympathetically.
“These misunderstandings between young and ardent hearts are
very frequent,” he said. “I could tell you at least fifty cases of the
same kind. The one which I will select is the story of Jane Packard,
William Bates, and Rodney Spelvin.”
“You told me that the other day. Jane Packard got engaged to
Rodney Spelvin, the poet, but the madness passed and she married
William Bates, who was a golfer.”
“This is another story of the trio.”
“You told me that one, too. After Jane Packard married William
Bates she fell once more under the spell of Spelvin, but repented in
time.”
“This is still another story. Making three in all.”
The secretary buried his face in his hands.
“Oh, well,” he said, “go ahead. What does anything matter now?”
“First,” said the Oldest Member, “let us make ourselves
comfortable. Take this chair. It is easier than the one in which you
are sitting.”
“No, thanks.”
“I insist.”
“Oh, all right.”
“Woof!” said the Oldest Member, settling himself luxuriously.
With an eye now full of kindly good-will, he watched young Clifford
Wimple play his fourth. Then, as the silver drops flashed up into the
sun, he nodded approvingly and began.
The story which I am about to relate (said the Oldest Member)
begins at a time when Jane and William had been married some
seven years. Jane’s handicap was eleven, William’s twelve, and their
little son, Braid Vardon, had just celebrated his sixth birthday.
Ever since that dreadful time, two years before, when, lured by the
glamour of Rodney Spelvin, she had taken a studio in the artistic
quarter, dropped her golf, and practically learned to play the ukelele,
Jane had been unremitting in her efforts to be a good mother and to
bring up her son on the strictest principles. And, in order that his
growing mind might have every chance, she had invited William’s
younger sister, Anastatia, to spend a week or two with them and put
the child right on the true functions of the mashie. For Anastatia had
reached the semi-finals of the last Ladies’ Open Championship and,
unlike many excellent players, had the knack of teaching.
On the evening on which this story opens the two women were
sitting in the drawing-room, chatting. They had finished tea; and
Anastatia, with the aid of a lump of sugar, a spoon, and some
crumbled cake, was illustrating the method by which she had got out
of the rough on the fifth at Squashy Hollow.
“You’re wonderful!” said Jane, admiringly. “And such a good
influence for Braid! You’ll give him his lesson to-morrow afternoon as
usual?”
“I shall have to make it the morning,” said Anastatia. “I’ve
promised to meet a man in town in the afternoon.”
As she spoke there came into her face a look so soft and dreamy
that it aroused Jane as if a bradawl had been driven into her leg. As
her history has already shown, there was a strong streak of romance
in Jane Bates.
“Who is he?” she asked, excitedly.
“A man I met last summer,” said Anastatia.
And she sighed with such abandon that Jane could no longer hold
in check her womanly nosiness.
“Do you love him?” she cried.
“Like bricks,” whispered Anastatia.
“Does he love you?”
“Sometimes I think so.”
“What’s his name?”
“Rodney Spelvin.”
“What!”
“Oh, I know he writes the most awful bilge,” said Anastatia,
defensively, misinterpreting the yowl of horror which had proceeded
from Jane. “All the same, he’s a darling.”
Jane could not speak. She stared at her sister-in-law aghast.
Although she knew that if you put a driver in her hands she could
paste the ball into the next county, there always seemed to her
something fragile and helpless about Anastatia. William’s sister was
one of those small, rose-leaf girls with big blue eyes to whom good
men instinctively want to give a stroke a hole and on whom bad men
automatically prey. And when Jane reflected that Rodney Spelvin
had to all intents and purposes preyed upon herself, who stood five
foot seven in her shoes and, but for an innate love of animals, could
have felled an ox with a blow, she shuddered at the thought of how
he would prey on this innocent half-portion.
“You really love him?” she quavered.
“If he beckoned to me in the middle of a medal round, I would
come to him,” said Anastatia.
Jane realised that further words were useless. A sickening sense
of helplessness obsessed her. Something ought to be done about
this terrible thing, but what could she do? She was so ashamed of
her past madness that not even to warn this girl could she reveal that
she had once been engaged to Rodney Spelvin herself; that he had
recited poetry on the green while she was putting; and that, later, he
had hypnotised her into taking William and little Braid to live in a
studio full of samovars. These revelations would no doubt open
Anastatia’s eyes, but she could not make them.
And then, suddenly, Fate pointed out a way.
It was Jane’s practice to go twice a week to the cinema palace in
the village; and two nights later she set forth as usual and took her
place just as the entertainment was about to begin.
At first she was only mildly interested. The title of the picture,
“Tried in the Furnace,” had suggested nothing to her. Being a regular
patron of the silver screen, she knew that it might quite easily turn
out to be an educational film on the subject of clinker-coal. But as the
action began to develop she found herself leaning forward in her
seat, blindly crushing a caramel between her fingers. For scarcely
had the operator started to turn the crank when inspiration came to
her.
Of the main plot of “Tried in the Furnace” she retained, when
finally she reeled out into the open air, only a confused recollection.
It had something to do with money not bringing happiness or
happiness not bringing money, she could not remember which. But
the part which remained graven upon her mind was the bit where
Gloria Gooch goes by night to the apartments of the libertine, to beg
him to spare her sister, whom he has entangled in his toils.
Jane saw her duty clearly. She must go to Rodney Spelvin and
conjure him by the memory of their ancient love to spare Anastatia.
It was not the easiest of tasks to put this scheme into operation.
Gloria Gooch, being married to a scholarly man who spent nearly all
his time in a library a hundred yards long, had been fortunately
situated in the matter of paying visits to libertines; but for Jane the
job was more difficult. William expected her to play a couple of
rounds with him in the morning and another in the afternoon, which
rather cut into her time. However, Fate was still on her side, for one
morning at breakfast William announced that business called him to
town.
“Why don’t you come too?” he said.
Jane started.
“No. No, I don’t think I will, thanks.”
“Give you lunch somewhere.”
“No. I want to stay here and do some practice-putting.”
“All right. I’ll try to get back in time for a round in the evening.”
Remorse gnawed at Jane’s vitals. She had never deceived William
before. She kissed him with even more than her usual fondness
when he left to catch the ten-forty-five. She waved to him till he was
out of sight; then, bounding back into the house, leaped at the
telephone and, after a series of conversations with the Marks-Morris
Glue Factory, the Poor Pussy Home for Indigent Cats, and Messrs.
Oakes, Oakes, and Parbury, dealers in fancy goods, at last found
herself in communication with Rodney Spelvin.
“Rodney?” she said, and held her breath, fearful at this breaking of
a two years’ silence and yet loath to hear another strange voice say
“Wadnumjerwant?” “Is that you, Rodney?”
“Yes. Who is that?”
“Mrs. Bates. Rodney, can you give me lunch at the Alcazar to-day
at one?”
“Can I!” Not even the fact that some unknown basso had got on
the wire and was asking if that was Mr. Bootle could blur the
enthusiasm in his voice. “I should say so!”
“One o’clock, then,” said Jane. His enthusiastic response had
relieved her. If by merely speaking she could stir him so, to bend him
to her will when they met face to face would be pie.
“One o’clock,” said Rodney.
Jane hung up the receiver and went to her room to try on hats.
The impression came to Jane, when she entered the lobby of the
restaurant and saw him waiting, that Rodney Spelvin looked
somehow different from the Rodney she remembered. His
handsome face had a deeper and more thoughtful expression, as if
he had been through some ennobling experience.
“Well, here I am,” she said, going to him and affecting a jauntiness
which she did not feel.
He looked at her, and there was in his eyes that unmistakable
goggle which comes to men suddenly addressed in a public spot by
women whom, to the best of their recollection, they do not know from
Eve.
“How are you?” he said. He seemed to pull himself together.
“You’re looking splendid.”
“You’re looking fine,” said Jane.
“You’re looking awfully well,” said Rodney.
“You’re looking awfully well,” said Jane.
“You’re looking fine,” said Rodney.
There was a pause.
“You’ll excuse my glancing at my watch,” said Rodney. “I have an
appointment to lunch with—er—somebody here, and it’s past the
time.”
“But you’re lunching with me,” said Jane, puzzled.
“With you?”
“Yes. I rang you up this morning.”
Rodney gaped.
“Was it you who ’phoned? I thought you said ‘Miss Bates.’”
“No, Mrs. Bates.”
“Mrs. Bates?”
“Mrs. Bates.”
“Of course. You’re Mrs. Bates.”
“Had you forgotten me?” said Jane, in spite of herself a little
piqued.
“Forgotten you, dear lady! As if I could!” said Rodney, with a return
of his old manner. “Well, shall we go in and have lunch?”
“All right,” said Jane.
She felt embarrassed and ill at ease. The fact that Rodney had
obviously succeeded in remembering her only after the effort of a
lifetime seemed to her to fling a spanner into the machinery of her
plans at the very outset. It was going to be difficult, she realised, to
conjure him by the memory of their ancient love to spare Anastatia;
for the whole essence of the idea of conjuring any one by the
memory of their ancient love is that the party of the second part
should be aware that there ever was such a thing.
At the luncheon-table conversation proceeded fitfully. Rodney said
that this morning he could have sworn it was going to rain, and Jane
said she had thought so, too, and Rodney said that now it looked as
if the weather might hold up, and Jane said Yes, didn’t it? and
Rodney said he hoped the weather would hold up because rain was
such a nuisance, and Jane said Yes, wasn’t it? Rodney said
yesterday had been a nice day, and Jane said Yes, and Rodney said
that it seemed to be getting a little warmer, and Jane said Yes, and
Rodney said that summer would be here at any moment now, and
Jane said Yes, wouldn’t it? and Rodney said he hoped it would not
be too hot this summer, but that, as a matter of fact, when you came
right down to it, what one minded was not so much the heat as the
humidity, and Jane said Yes, didn’t one?
In short, by the time they rose and left the restaurant, not a word
had been spoken that could have provoked the censure of the
sternest critic. Yet William Bates, catching sight of them as they
passed down the aisle, started as if he had been struck by lightning.
He had happened to find himself near the Alcazar at lunch-time and
had dropped in for a chop; and, peering round the pillar which had
hidden his table from theirs, he stared after them with saucer-like
eyes.
“Oh, dash it!” said William.
This William Bates, I have indicated in my previous references to
him, was not an abnormally emotional or temperamental man. Built
physically on the lines of a motor-lorry, he had much of that vehicle’s
placid and even phlegmatic outlook on life. Few things had the
power to ruffle William, but, unfortunately, it so happened that one of
these things was Rodney Spelvin. He had never been able entirely
to overcome his jealousy of this man. It had been Rodney who had
come within an ace of scooping Jane from him in the days when she
had been Miss Packard. It had been Rodney who had temporarily
broken up his home some years later by persuading Jane to become
a member of the artistic set. And now, unless his eyes jolly well
deceived him, this human gumboil was once more busy on his
dastardly work. Too dashed thick, was William’s view of the matter;
and he gnashed his teeth in such a spasm of resentful fury that a
man lunching at the next table told the waiter to switch off the electric
fan, as it had begun to creak unendurably.
Jane was reading in the drawing-room when William reached

home that night.
“Had a nice day?” asked William.
“Quite nice,” said Jane.
“Play golf?” asked William.
“Just practised,” said Jane.
“Lunch at the club?”
“Yes.”
“I thought I saw that bloke Spelvin in town,” said William.
Jane wrinkled her forehead.
“Spelvin? Oh, you mean Rodney Spelvin? Did you? I see he’s got
a new book coming out.”
“You never run into him these days, do you?”
“Oh no. It must be two years since I saw him.”
“Oh?” said William. “Well, I’ll be going upstairs and dressing.”
It seemed to Jane, as the door closed, that she heard a curious
clicking noise, and she wondered for a moment if little Braid had got
out of bed and was playing with the Mah-Jongg counters. But it was
only William gnashing his teeth.
There is nothing sadder in this life than the spectacle of a husband

and wife with practically identical handicaps drifting apart; and to
dwell unnecessarily on such a spectacle is, to my mind, ghoulish. It
is not my purpose, therefore, to weary you with a detailed description
of the hourly widening of the breach between this once ideally united
pair. Suffice it to say that within a few days of the conversation just
related the entire atmosphere of this happy home had completely
altered. On the Tuesday, William had excused himself from the
morning round on the plea that he had promised Peter Willard a
match, and Jane said What a pity! On Tuesday afternoon William
said that his head ached, and Jane said Isn’t that too bad? On
Wednesday morning William said he had lumbago, and Jane, her
sensitive feelings now deeply wounded, said Oh, had he? After that,
it came to be agreed between them by silent compact that they
should play together no more.
Also, they began to avoid one another in the house. Jane would sit
in the drawing-room, while William retired down the passage to his
den. In short, if you had added a couple of ikons and a photograph of
Trotsky, you would have had a mise en scène which would have
fitted a Russian novel like the paper on the wall.
One evening, about a week after the beginning of this tragic state
of affairs, Jane was sitting in the drawing-room, trying to read Braid
on Taking Turf. But the print seemed blurred and the philosophy too
metaphysical to be grasped. She laid the book down and stared
sadly before her.
Every moment of these black days had affected Jane like a stymie
on the last green. She could not understand how it was that William
should have come to suspect, but that he did suspect was plain; and
she writhed on the horns of a dilemma. All she had to do to win him
back again was to go to him and tell him of Anastatia’s fatal
entanglement. But what would happen then? Undoubtedly he would
feel it his duty as a brother to warn the girl against Rodney Spelvin;
and Jane instinctively knew that William warning any one against
Rodney Spelvin would sound like a private of the line giving his
candid opinion of the sergeant-major.
Inevitably, in this case, Anastatia, a spirited girl and deeply in love,
would take offence at his words and leave the house. And if she left
the house, what would be the effect on little Braid’s mashie-play?
Already, in less than a fortnight, the gifted girl had taught him more
about the chip-shot from ten to fifteen yards off the green than the
local pro. had been able to do in two years. Her departure would be
absolutely disastrous.
What it amounted to was that she must sacrifice her husband’s
happiness or her child’s future; and the problem of which was to get
the loser’s end was becoming daily more insoluble.
She was still brooding on it when the postman arrived with the
evening mail, and the maid brought the letters into the drawing-room.
Jane sorted them out. There were three for William, which she
gave to the maid to take to him in his den. There were two for
herself, both bills. And there was one for Anastatia, in the well-
remembered handwriting of Rodney Spelvin.
Jane placed this letter on the mantel-piece, and stood looking at it
like a cat at a canary. Anastatia was away for the day, visiting friends
who lived a few stations down the line; and every womanly instinct in
Jane urged her to get hold of a kettle and steam the gum off the
envelope. She had almost made up her mind to disembowel the
thing and write “Opened in error” on it, when the telephone suddenly
went off like a bomb and nearly startled her into a decline. Coming at
that moment it sounded like the Voice of Conscience.
“Hullo?” said Jane.
“Hullo!” replied a voice.
Jane clucked like a hen with uncontrollable emotion. It was
Rodney.
“Is that you?” asked Rodney
And so it was, she told herself.
“Your voice is like music,” said Rodney.
This may or may not have been the case, but at any rate it was
exactly like every other female voice when heard on the telephone.
Rodney prattled on without a suspicion.
“Have you got my letter yet?”
“No,” said Jane. She hesitated. “What was in it?” she asked,
tremulously.
“It was to ask you to come to my house to-morrow at four.”
“To your house!” faltered Jane.
“Yes. Everything is ready. I will send the servants out, so that we
shall be quite alone. You will come, won’t you?”
The room was shimmering before Jane’s eyes, but she regained
command of herself with a strong effort.
“Yes,” she said. “I will be there.”
She spoke softly, but there was a note of menace in her voice.
Yes, she would indeed be there. From the very moment when this
man had made his monstrous proposal, she had been asking herself
what Gloria Gooch would have done in a crisis like this. And the
answer was plain. Gloria Gooch, if her sister-in-law was intending to
visit the apartments of a libertine, would have gone there herself to
save the poor child from the consequences of her infatuated folly.
“Yes,” said Jane, “I will be there.”
“You have made me the happiest man in the world,” said Rodney.
“I will meet you at the corner of the street at four, then.” He paused.
“What is that curious clicking noise?” he asked.
“I don’t know,” said Jane. “I noticed it myself. Something wrong
with the wire, I suppose.”
“I thought it was somebody playing the castanets. Until to-morrow,
then, good-bye.”
“Good-bye.”
Jane replaced the receiver. And William, who had been listening to
every word of the conversation on the extension in his den, replaced
his receiver, too.
Anastatia came back from her visit late that night. She took her
letter, and read it without comment. At breakfast next morning she
said that she would be compelled to go into town that day.
“I want to see my dressmaker,” she said.
“I’ll come, too,” said Jane. “I want to see my dentist.”

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Emerging Applications of Carbon

Nanotubes in Drug and Gene Delivery

Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

For information on all Woodhead Publishing publications visit our

Publisher: Matthew Deans

Mohammad A.S. Abourehab

Mashhad, Iran; Department of Medical Biotechnology and Nanotechnology, School of

Background of carbon nanotubes

proposed as means of drug/gene delivery that respond to external stimuli.

Table 1.1 Various applications of carbon nanotubes.

Bioimaging Carbon nanotube’s optical, electronic and [31,32]

1.2 Quantitative approaches

treatment and diagnosis of cancer by combining nanotechnologies with

returned 3571 documents from SCOPUS database. After careful inspec-

38996 articles excluded on the basis of not including

3571 Selected Full-text articles assessed for eligibility

1846 Records included in the Systematic Review

Figure 1.1 Prisma ﬂow diagram.

Keywords are highly inﬂuential on the mechanism and effectiveness of

carbon, single-walled, multi-walled, molecular dynamic, delivery system,

the schematic representation of yearly increases in record numbers.

institutes in which these documents were published included “Ministry of

Figure 1.4 Cont'd

1.3 CNT morphology and structure

1.4 Classiﬁcation of CNTs

1.4.1 Single-walled CNTs (SWCNTs)

1.4.2 Multi-walled CNTs (MWCNTs)

1.4.3 Double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWCNTs)

1.4.4 CNT types based on chirality

(a) Armchair (b) Chiral

(c) SWCNTs (d) MWCNTs

1.5 Drug loading on carbon nanotubes

Table 1.2 Mechanism of loading drug.

would be attached to different types of carbon nanotubes. Various chemical

between nanocarriers and drugs rather than the non-covalent method,

1.5.1 CNTs and cellular uptake

Figure 1.7 Cellular uptake of carbon nanotube into endocytic vesicles.

The distribution of CNTs within cells can occur either passively

1.5.2 Size of CNTs

1.5.3 Degree of agglomeration and aggregation

1.5.4 Surface charge

complexes have surface charges of approximately 66.8 and 52.8 mV,

1.5.5 Cell type

1.6 Drug delivery using carbon nanotubes

1.6.1 Antineoplastic APIs

1.6.2 Anti-inﬂammatory APIs

release proﬁle. Additionally, osmotic pressure from the membrane sur-

1.6.3 Cardiovascular APIs

interactions between SWCNTs and nifedipine in order to further under-

1.6.4 Anti-infective APIs

of Amphotericin B and MWCNT has been reported to have signiﬁcant

1.6.5 Gene therapy

1.6.6 The delivery system using conjugated CNT-liposomes

Jane was reading in the drawing-room when William reached

There is nothing sadder in this life than the spectacle of a husband

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