Faculty of Pharmacy

Research Project Title

Memory
Research Project Code “SSGE07”R4
Research Group N°25

Submitted by:
Student Name: ‫عبدالرحمن عالء عبده أحمد الشوربجي‬ Student ID: 101601327

SSG E07-Psychology and Communication Skills

Supervised by:
Prof. Dr. Abd El-Hamid Mohamed Ali
 List of Contents
List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................................................... i
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. ii
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 1
Keywords ........................................................................................................................................ 1
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Literature Review............................................................................................................................ 3
Sensory Memory ............................................................................................................................. 3
Short-term Memory ........................................................................................................................ 3
Long-term Memory ......................................................................................................................... 4
Types of Memory ............................................................................................................................ 5
By Temporal Direction ................................................................................................................... 5
By information type .................................................................................................................... 5
Topographic memory .............................................................................................................. 5
Flashbulb memories ................................................................................................................ 5
Declarative .............................................................................................................................. 5
Autobiographical memory ...................................................................................................... 6
Visual memory ........................................................................................................................ 6
Study Techniques ............................................................................................................................ 6
Infants assessment ....................................................................................................................... 6
Operant condition technique ................................................................................................... 7
Visual paired comparison procedure ...................................................................................... 7
Older children and adults’ assessment ........................................................................................ 7
Free recall................................................................................................................................ 7
Recognition ............................................................................................................................. 7
Cued recall .............................................................................................................................. 7
Implicit memory task .............................................................................................................. 7
Savings method ....................................................................................................................... 7
Detection paradigm ................................................................................................................. 8
Cognitive Neuroscience .................................................................................................................. 8
Physiology....................................................................................................................................... 8
Genetics........................................................................................................................................... 9
Disorders ....................................................................................................................................... 10
Influencing Factors ....................................................................................................................... 10
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 10
References ..................................................................................................................................... 11

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 List of Abbreviations

APOE Apolipoprotein E
KIBRA Protein Kidney and Brain Protein

i
List of Figures

Figure 1 Overview on the Functions of Memory............................................................................ 2

Figure 2 Stages of Memory............................................................................................................. 4
Figure 3 A diagram Representing Different Memory Types .......................................................... 6
Figure 4 Detection Paradigm sample .............................................................................................. 8
Figure 5 Brain Regions Involved in Memory ................................................................................. 9
Figure 6 Representation of the KIBRA protein .............................................................................. 9

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 Abstract

Memory is the function of the brain by which information or data is encoded, stored and then when
needed, retrieved. Memory is usually understood to be a system of information processing with
implicit or explicit function made of short-term memory, long-term memory and sensory process.
This paper will fully cover the latter memory processes of sensory process long-term memory and
short-term memory, proceeding to discuss the types of memory divided by information type and
by temporal direction. The research will also cover study techniques to assess infants, children and
older adults, subsequently talking about memory physiology, cognitive neuroscience and genetics
affecting such memory, in addition the paper will discuss most common disorders affecting
memory and other factors influencing memory capabilities memory.

Keywords
1. Memory
2. Memory Types
3. Memory Assessments
4. Memory Physiology and genetics
5. Memory Impairments and disorders

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Introduction

Memory is the ability to take in information (Figure1), store it and retrieving it when needed. In
psychology memory is broken down in three different stages 1.
• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval

1. Encoding is the process of receiving, processing and combining information. Encoding allows
information from the outside world to reach human senses in the form of physical and chemical
stimuli. In this stage information is changed so that humans may transfer the memory into the
encoding process 1.
2. Storage is the transferring of encoded information in a created permanent record. Storage is
the second memory process or stage in which humans maintain information over time periods
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.
3. Retrieval is the process of recalling back stored information in response to some stimuli to be
used in an activity or process. Retrieving information requires locating such info and return it
to our consciousness, but some retrieval attempts can be effortless based on the information
type.

Figure 1 Overview on the Functions of Memory

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 Literature Review

Sensory Memory

Sensory memory is the stage of memory (Figure 2) that holds sensory information less than a
second after an object is recognized. The ability to look at an object and remember what it looked
like at the moment of observation or memorizing information is an example of sensory memory.
This is outside cognitive control and is recognized as an automatic response. In very short
presentations, participants often mention that they appear to be "see" more than they really are.
The first experiments that thoroughly explored this form of sensory memory were performed using
the "partial reporting model. Subjects are presented with a grid containing 12 letters arranged in 3
rows of four letters. After a short presentation, the topic was played in a high, middle, or low tone
giving them clues which of the rows to report. Based on these partial report experiments, it turned
out that the sensory memory capacity is about 12 items, but it decreased very quickly (within few
hundred milliseconds). This form of memory deteriorates very quickly that participants can see
the presentation, but not all items could be reported before it deteriorates. This type of memory
cannot be expanded during training. There are three types of sensory memory 2.
• Iconic memory is a fast decaying stores of visual information. This is a type of sensory
memory that temporarily stores recognized images perceived in a small duration of time.
• Echoic memory is a storage unit of rapidly perceived audio information. It is also a sensory
memory that temporarily stores perceived sounds for a short time.
• Haptic memory is a type of sensory memory that represents a database of tactile stimuli.
. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Short-term Memory

Short-term memory is also called working memory. Short-term memory allows retrieving
information for a period of time of several seconds expanding to a minute with no rehearsal.
However, its capacity is very limited 2. An experiment conducted in 1956 showed that the storage
capacity of short-term memory was 7 ± 2 elements. Recent estimates of short-term memory
capacity are even lower, usually around 4-5 elements. However, memory capacity can be improved
through a process called chunking. For example, in remembering a 10-digit phone number, people
will cut said number in three groups. First, the area code (like 123), then the 3-digit segment (456),
and finally the 4-digit segment (7890). This method of remembering a phone number is more
effective than remembering a 10-digit series. This is because the information can be divided into
groups of meaningful numbers. This is reflected in the direction of the country to display phone
numbers as some bits of numbers from 2 to 4.

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Long-term Memory

Generally, sensory and short-term memory have strictly limited duration and capacity meaning
that information is not retained indefinitely. In contrast, long-term memory can store a much
greater amount of information for unlimited periods and in some cases, a full life span. Long-term
memory capacity is limitless. For example, looking at a random eight-digit number, a person might
remember it for a few seconds before forgetting it, indicating that it was stored in short-term
memory 2. Oppositely, a person can recall a phone number for many years through frequent
repetition. This information is stored in long-term memory.
Short-term memory encodes the information phonetically, while long-term memory semantically
encodes it 2. In 1966 Baddeley discovered that after 20 minutes test subjects were having great
difficulty remembering a group of words with similar meanings in the long run. Another long-term
memory part is episodic memory that seeks information such as "what", "when" and "where".
Episodic memory allows individuals to remember certain events such as weddings and birthday
parties.
Short-term memory is reinforced by a transitory pattern of neurotransmitter dependent on the areas
of the frontal lobe (especially the lateral frontal cortex) and parietal lobe. On the other hand, long-
term memory is preserved through more stable and lasting changes in the nerve connections
circulating throughout the brain. Although the hippocampus does not seem to store information on
its own, it is necessary to learn new information and integrating such information from short-term
memory to long-term memory. Without the hippocampus, the new memories cannot be preserved
in long-term memory, resulting in very short attention span, as first observed from patient Henry
Morrison after considering complete elimination of both hippocampi. A more recent examination
of his brain after death showed that the hippocampus was safer than the original thought,
questioning the theory drawn from the original data. The hippocampus may participate in variable
neurological connections for more than 3 months after initial learning 2.
Studies have suggested that long-term human memory can be preserved by DNA methylation and
"prion" genes.

Figure 2 Stages of Memory

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Types of Memory
Researchers found differences between recall and recognition memory 3. Recognition memory is
required to point out whether a person was in contact with a certain stimulus in a past time period.
On the other hand, recall memory requires persons to retrieve past learned information (Figure 3).

By Temporal Direction
A main way to differentiate between memory functions is whether the stored content is a previous
retrospective memory or a future prospective memory. Therefore, retrospective memory includes
episodic memory, semantic memory category and autobiographical memory. On the other hand,
future prospective memory is a memory that recalls intentions or the act of remembering to
remember something. Prospective memory can be further divided in event and time-based
prospective memory. Future time-based memory is triggered by time signals such as having an
appointment at 5PM. Event based future prospective memory are future intentions triggered by
cues. 3

By information type

Topographic memory
Topographic memory includes the ability to direct yourself in space, identify and follow the
itinerary, or learn about familiar locations. For example, getting lost when traveling alone is
considered topographic memory failure. 3
Flashbulb memories
Flashbulb memories are strong episodic memories of very unique and emotional events. For
example, people who remember where they were and what they were doing when they first heard
the news of the 9/11 terroristic attack, or when they first heard about the end of the 2011
revolutions in Egypt, these are clear episodes of flashbulb memories 3.
Declarative
Declarative memory requires conscious recall, because some conscious processes need to retrieve
information. It is also called explicit memory because it consists of information that is explicitly
stored and retrieved.
Declarative memory can be divided into semantic memory in terms of principles and facts
independent of context. Temporarily storing information about a specific context, such as time or
place. Semantic memory allows you to encode knowledge of abstract nature about the world, such
as "Cairo is the capital of Egypt". On the other hand, episodic memory is used for more personal
memory, such as feelings of a particular place or time, emotions, and personal associations and
relations. Episodic memories always represent the "first" episodes in life, such the first day of
school, or the first victory. These are important life events that can be clearly

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remembered. Studies indicate that declarative memory is supported by many functions of the
medial temporal lobe system, including the hippocampus.
Autobiographical memory
Autobiographical memory is a memory for specific events in an individual's life, it is usually
considered an equivalent to episodic memory, or a subset of it.
Visual memory
Visual memory is a portion of memory that preserves some of the sensory properties associated
with the visual experience. One can put in mind things, places, animals or information that are
similar to people. Visual memory can cause priming, and it is assumed that some cognitive
expression systems underlie this phenomenon.

Figure 3 A diagram Representing Different Memory Types

Study Techniques

Infants assessment
Infants do not possess the language ability to clarify their memories as a result verbal reports are
useless in assessing the memory of young children 4.
Techniques used to assess the recognition memory of children include:

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Operant condition technique
The child is placed in a crib, a ribbon is connected to one of their feet through a mobile overhead.
Infants will notice that the mobile moves when they kick their feet. Kicking rate increases
dramatically within minutes. Studies using this technique have shown that infant memory
improved dramatically in the first 18 months. Children from two to three months can perform
effective responses (such as kicking their feet to activate the mobile overhead) for one week,
children from 6 months can hold two weeks, and children who are 18 months can hold a similar
factor response for 13 weeks.4

Visual paired comparison procedure

Children are presented with pairs of stimuli of visual nature such as 2 black and white pictures oh
human faces for a fixed period of time. After being totally familiarized with the test photos, the
infant is presented with the old familiar picture in combination with 2 new photographs. The time
spent looking at each picture is recorded. Looking longer at the newly introduced pictures indicates
the infant’s ability to remember the old familiar one. This study has proven that infants can retain
visual information for as long as 14 days. 4

Older children and adults’ assessment

Researchers use numerous test and tasks to assess the memory of adults and older children as
following:
Free recall
Subjects are presented with a list of words to study, after that they will be asked to write down as
many words as possible from the list. Earlier words are affected by retroactive interference,
meaning the longer the word’s list the more difficult will be to recall earliest words.
Recognition
Subject are presented with a list of words or photos to study, after that they are asked to identify
the previous studied items among a group of other items not present in the first listing.
Cued recall
The subject is given a hint word that will supposedly help him/her remember or recall a memory
involving such word.
Implicit memory task
Information is recalled from memory without conscious realization.
Savings method
It is a test that compares the time required to learn something and the time required to relearn the
same subject. The time difference between the two measures memory.

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Detection paradigm
Subjects ae shown numbers of color samples and items for a certain time period. They are then
tested on their visual ability to recognize such items or similar objects (Figure 4).

Figure 4 Detection Paradigm sample

Cognitive Neuroscience
Cognitive neuroscientists consider the function of memory as the retention, reactivation and
reconstruction of the experience-independent internal presentation. The term of internal
representation suggests that this definition of memory is composed of two main components, the
underpinning physical changes in neurons and the expression of memory at the conscious or
behavioral level. The underpinning physical neuron changes is also called engram or memory
traces. Some physiologists and neuroscientists equate mistakenly the concept of memory and
engram broadly conceiving all continuing after-effects of experiences as memory. Other scientists
argue that memory does not exist until is revealed in thought or behavior 4.

Physiology
Areas of brain (Figure 5) involved in memories’ neuroanatomy like the amygdala, the
hippocampus, the mammillary bodies or the striatum are thought to be involved in specific memory
types. For example, the amygdala is believed to take part in emotional memory while the
hippocampus is thought to be involved in declarative and spatial memory 5.
Damage to certain regions of the mentioned brain parts in patients resulting in memory deficit is a
primary information’s source. The observed deficit however, may not be due to direct damage to
the region, but rather to an adjacent region or a pathway leading to such region. Learning and
memory are attributed to changes happening in neural synapses 5.
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Generally, the more the experience or event is emotionally charged the better it’s remembered
which is known as memory enhancement effect. Patient suffering from amygdala impairments do
not show this type of enhancement 6.

Figure 5 Brain Regions Involved in Memory

Genetics
Study of human memory’s genetics is in its embryo stages however; many genes have been studied
for their memory association in humans and animals. One of the first improvements and successes
was the link between APOE with Alzheimer’s disease memory deficit. One of the primary
candidates for memory normal variation is the KIBRA protein (Figure 6), which appears to be
linked with the rate at which information or material is lost or forgotten on a delay period.6

Figure 6 Representation of the KIBRA protein

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Disorders
Most of the available knowledge about memory has come by the study of memory disorders as
amnesia. Memory loss is known as amnesia. Amnesia can result from general damage to:
1. Regions of the medial temporal lobe, such as dentate gyrus, the hippocampus, amygdala,
parahippocampus, cerebral cortex, and entorhinal cortex.
2. Areas of the middle brain, especially Epithelial nucleus and hypothalamus and mammillary
bodies. 6
There are different types of memory loss, and by studying their different forms, it becomes possible
to notice obvious defects in the individual subsystems of the brain's memory system, and
subsequently making hypothesis on a normally functioning brain. Other neurological disorders,
such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's, can affect cognition and memory. Hyperthyroidism, is a
disorder that affects a person’s autobiographic memory, which means that he or she cannot forget
the small details that are not mainly preserved. Korsakoff’s syndrome, better known as Korsakoff’s
psychosis, is an organic brain disorder that negatively affects memory by losing or contracting
neurons in the prefrontal cortex 7.

Influencing Factors
Interference can inhibit memory and retrieval of said memories. Learning new information makes
it difficult to remember old information, and there is a retroactive overlap in which previous
intervention overlaps with remembering new information. Interference can make a subject forget,
but it is important to keep in mind that there are situations when old information can help you learn
new information. For example, knowledge of Latin can help individuals learn related languages
like Italian, Spanish or French, this phenomenon is called positive transfer 7.

Conclusion
Memory is a process yet to be totally understood. Studies have shown great progress in this field
with a bright future of the memory segment in neuroscience. Medicine has also evolved to make
an impact in treating rather untreatable memory impairments and a deeper genetic, physiological
and psychological understanding of the topic will help in the matter. Psychologist are developing
new assessments test based on the regular fixed assessment as well as exercises to improve
memory in healthy and impaired subjects.

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References

1. Atkinson R, Shiffrin R. Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes.
Psychology of Learning and Motivation. 1968;:89-195.
2. Miller G. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for
processing information. Psychological Review. 1956;63(2):81-97.
3. Schwabe L, Bohringer A, Wolf O. Stress disrupts context-dependent memory. Learning
& Memory. 2009;16(2):110-113.
4. Karpicke J, Lehman M. Human Memory. Oxford Bibliographies Online Datasets. 2013;.
5. Kesner R. A process analysis of the CA3 subregion of the hippocampus. Frontiers in
Cellular Neuroscience. 2013;7.
6. Fransén E, Alonso A, Hasselmo M. Simulations of the Role of the Muscarinic-Activated
Calcium-Sensitive Nonspecific Cation CurrentINCMin Entorhinal Neuronal Activity
during Delayed Matching Tasks. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2002;22(3):1081-1097.
7. Kalat J. Introduction to psychology. 2005.

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