Review of Related Literature

The review of related literature for this study focuses more on the smoking bans

on other countries and its effects on the perceptions and smoking behavior of people.

The review includes both local and international studies. The researchers believe that

the following studies are very much related to the problem; thus providing other possible

additional effects of the smoking ban to the smoking behavior to the target respondents:

UST students.

Household smoking bans and adolescents’ perceived prevalence of smoking and

social acceptability of smoking

Household smoking bans are recommended to decrease the visibility of cigarette

smoking, and also to initiate nonsmoking social patterns and parental attitudes towards

the sector of youth, which may serve as mediators to reduce smoking initiation.

Measures of tobacco-related social norms such as perceived smoking prevalence [14–

23] and the perceived social acceptability of smoking have been shown to be strong

predictors of adolescent smoking or smoking initiation. Furthermore, recent studies also

show that peer and parental smoking as well as parental antismoking patterns and

disapproval of smoking are directly related to adolescent smoking behavior. With those

studies being present as an additional guide to this study, this paper aims to assess the

relationships of household smoking bans on adolescents’ perceived prevalence of adult

and youth smoking, as well as their perception of adult disapproval of adult and youth

smoking. The method used for this study is a telephone survey. A random sample of

3831 Massachusetts adolescents (between 12–17 years old) are being assessed by the
interviewers regarding their perceptions of smoking prevalence and attitudes about the

social acceptability of smoking in their community. The findings show that a household

smoking ban is strongly associated to youth’s perception of smoking. That is, the fewer

the smokers and the stronger the disapproval of smoking, the lower smoking prevalence

that the youth perceive.

Restaurant owner perceptions of the effects of a smoking ban

This study is directed to restaurant sector business owner and their expectations

regarding revenue changes due to a general smoking ban. A number of studies

conducted in the past show that the economic effects of smoking bans has no clear

evidence as to how the restaurant sector is affected by tighter smoking regulations. But,

there are other studies regarding smoking bans on restaurants and establishments

focused on the revenue and financial capacity. In a study conducted by Dunham and

Marlow, results report that revenues would be expected to decrease by 39% for

restaurants and by 83% for bars and taverns if smoking bans were implemented. This

also directs attention to the fact that the distribution of the effects of a smoking ban is

not uniform among different types of establishments. In this study, the researcher

analyzes business owner expectations regarding revenue effects of a general smoking

ban, using a survey mailed to restaurants, bars, and cafés in Gothenburg, Sweden. The

method being used was a questionnaire, which is being sent out to the owners of each

of the 642 restaurants, bars, cafés, and nightclubs in downtown Gothenburg, Sweden,

in the fall of 2000. The results show that the dependence on smoking customers and

the beliefs regarding how the whole restaurant sector would be affected are, in terms of

size and statistical significance, the most important variables for explaining expectations
of changes in revenues. Establishments that are smoke-free are less likely to expect

negative economic effects from a smoking ban compared to those that currently allow

smoking. The results also show that the larger the share of smoking customers, the

more likely the owner is to expect somewhat lower revenues, and the expected effect in

the category “much lower revenues or bankrupt” is even stronger. Hence, the general

pattern is that establishments that have smoking bans or have a relatively small

proportion of smoking customers are less likely to expect financial loss from an

introduction of a smoking ban.

One last puff? Public smoking bans and smoking behavior

This study examines the effects of the introduction of smoking ban to individual

smoking behavior in Germany, a country with relatively high smoking rates among

industrialized countries (Tobacco Atlas, 2009). This study is much closely related to the

researchers’ current study because this study also tackles state-level smoking bans,

much like the Manila Ordinance and the Republic Act 9211. Researchers of this study

used data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP), an annual ongoing

household panel of roughly 20,000 individuals in around 11,000 households (Wagner

etal, 2007). Respondents were asked whether they currently smoked, and also how

many cigarettes they are smoking on a daily basis. With the gathered data, results show

that the introduction of smoke-free policies in Germany did not change the respondents’

average smoking behavior in the short term; that is, following the introduction of

smoking bans, individuals were neither less likely to smoke on average, nor did they

smoke fewer cigarettes. However, individuals who were reported going to bars and

restaurants regularly did adjust their smoking habits due to higher exposure to public
smoking bans. The findings of this study further suggests that the implementation of

smoking bans can be an effective tobacco control policy that provides health benefits

aside from reducing the exposure of non-smokers to second hand smoke, especially in

a country with a high overall smoking prevalence, like the Philippines.

The effects of a prison smoking ban on smoking behavior and withdrawal

symptoms

This study examined nicotine dependence as predictors of nicotine withdrawal

symptoms. Nicotine withdrawal has received increased attention over the last several

years, as smoking has come to be recognized as an addictive disorder (Hughes &

Hatsukami, 1986). This study further investigated these effects with participants who

were not seeking to quit smoking but who were being forced to quit due to a strict

implementation of statewide smoking ban. Data used for this study included 188 male

smokers as the respondents during a mandated smoking ban in prison settings.

Participants were assessed at three time periods: baseline (1 week prior to the smoking

ban), Time 2 (4 days after the smoking ban), and Time 3 (1 month after the smoking

ban). Participants were required to answer a smoking history questionnaire and

measures of nicotine dependence, withdrawal, cravings, and distress before the ban

and two follow-up times. Results derived from the study show that 76% of participants

continued to smoke following the implementation of the smoking ban. Smokers after the

ban were more nicotine dependent than were the participants who reported quitting.

Thus, it appears that the smoking ban was not well enforced. One possible implication

would be the depression of the inmates; thus, smoking is one way of them coping with
depression and stress. Thus, it is important to understand the withdrawal effects that

inmates would suffer in response to these smoking bans.

Cross Cultural Attraction and Cigarette Consumption among college students

This study investigates the youth as well as their knowledge, attitude and

experiences about tobacco intakes. Furthermore, the study aims to understand the

cultural elements attached to the country of origin of a product as context or one of the

multiple and interactive factors contributing to the cigarette consumption of the youth

sector. The study used descriptive and correlation method among 1,521 college

students coming from five selected higher education institutions in Metro Manila. Data

gathering is done through pre-tested questionnaires. In turn, results gathered

significantly show that majority of the college students were attracted to American

culture; thus contributing to their habit of smoking. Most of the respondents perceive

that cigarette smoking is an integral part of their American peers’ way of life. Finally,

based on the statistical test conducted among the variables, it indicates that there is a

significant relationship between the attraction of respondents to American culture and

their cigarette consumption. This validates the findings of earlier foreign studies based

on theories on consumer behavior. Consumption practices play a role in image

experimentation, image management, social affiliation and expression of group and

individual boundaries (Nichter, 2003).