e:> Pergamon . Wat. Sci. Tech. Vol. 34, No. 12. pp. 197-203. 1996.

Copyng~t C> 1996 IA WQ. PIlblished by Elsev ier Science ltd

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ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS IN
ENGINEERING EDUCATION: A MISSING
FUNDAMENTAL
David G. Wareham* and Panagiotis Elefsiniotis**
• Department ofCivil Engineering. University ofCanterbury. Private Bag 4800,
Christchurch, New Zealand
•• Department of Civil and Geological Engineering. 403A Engineering Building,
J5 Gillson Street. Winnipeg, Manitoba. Canada R3T 5V6

ABSTRACT

This paper reviews !he way in which engineers interact wilh the environment. It argues that future
engineering should be part of a paradigm shift in which engineers are seen as responsible stewards rather
than negligent trustees of the environment . This can be accomplished by educa tion in environmental ethics,
defined here as a set of obligations 10 nature characterised by a mindset geared towards pollution prevention
and pollution remediation . It is argued that training in environmental ethics should be considered as a
fundamental skilliaughl in all engineering programmes . The paper closes with a suggested outline Dr a lirsl
course in environmental ethics. Copyright © 1996IAWQ. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

KEYWORDS

Environmental ethics; engineering education; code of ethics; stewardship; sustainable development.

INTRODUCTION

In the early years of this century, the Russian scientist V.I. Vernadski stated that mankind was a powerful
geological force (Laptev, 1990). He was referring to the many civil engineering activities beginning to
deliberately shape the surface morphology of the earth. These included the mining of ores, the digging of
canals, the construction of dams. the boring of tunnels and the levelling of mountains. A recent example of
this latter activity occurred in December 1992 when the Paotai mountain in China erupted in an enormous
cloud of dust and debris. This eruption was the largest peacetime explosion in history and was equivalent to
the blast which levelled Hiroshima Approximately I I million cubic metres of earth and stone were shifted
as part of the expansion of the Zhuhai airfield in China. China also plans to resettle over a million people
from the Yangtze river area, allowing construction of the world's largest dam (185 metres high). This dam
will cost approximately US$ 12 billion and will flood a vast area (28,800 ha.), obliterating farmland and
raising the water level at the famous Three Gorge! section of the Yangtze river.

The history of engineering activities include many examples of development which have resulted in the
degradation of the environment. The above examples however, serve to illustrate that engineering of the
future, now, more than ever, has the potential to have absolutely enormous environmental impacts .
Engineers in the past have shouldered much of the blame for the devastation wrought by economic

197
 198 D. G. WAREHAM and P. ELEFSINIOTIS

development. This has been magnified. not only by an increase in the demand for energy and natural
resources. but also by an elevation in the standard of living brought about by the activities of engineers. The
present environmental crisis can be directly attributed to the imposition of economic activities on ecological
systems. with little regard for the latter's physical limitations. It is axiomatic that development without
restraint directly undermines the potential for future development through (i) over-exploitation of natural
resources and (ii) discharge of residuals (Hashim. 1994). The rate and magnitude of exploitation has also
increased. not only because of population growth. but also because technology (practically synonymous with
engineering activities) has enabled individuals to access and deplete more resources within a shorter unit of
time (DuBose et al., 1994).

There is now therefore a compelling need for engineers to intelligently manage both the natural resources
used in development and the residuals generated from these developments. The guiding caveat for all future
development is the principle of inter-generational equity (i.e. equal opportunity across all generations
(Wilkinson. 1993». This is the principle embodied in the term sustainable development, loosely defined by
the World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) to be "meeting the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". To some degree, the
tension between economic development and conservation practices has been acknowledged by many
countries in that they now require some kind of formal procedure for assessing the environmental impacts
associated with engineering works. Furthermore. this evaluation is usually based upon some notion of
sustainable development.

Engineering educators have responded by providing courses in environmental impact assessment and/or
courses in society and technology. What has been slow in coming however, is the mandate that engineers be
ethically bound to practice in a way that promotes the concept of sustainability (Thorn, 1994). Moreover,
what is missing in the engineering education system is an emphasis that breeds an ethic which. in the first
instance, automatically looks outside the anthropocentric view and interprets the environmental data within a
framework of quality of life for IDl organisms on the planet. Looking beyond mankind's interest and
widening the moral community to include all life (Gunn and Vesiland, 1986) forms the basis for an
environmental ethic.

COMPONENTS OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHIC

Technological solutions to environmental problems can often be inadequate in and of themselves because
they are developed within a reductionist mindset. This is an attitude which believes that the ability to reduce
a problem to technological terms leads to an attendant ability to solve the problem on purely technological
grounds. The difficulty with this approach is that it fails to question the very nature of the human activity
which generates the pollutant. Human behavioral changes, waste management techniques, elimination or
reduction at source. in-house preventive measures and/or iterative process modifications may actually be a
more realistic way forward than remedial methods once pollution has occurred. Value-laden questions
associated with the nature or the "why" of human activities are fundamentally ethical questions. These have
not traditionally been the focus of engineering programmes (which have tended to focus on the "what" or
"how" questions).

It is advocated that a sustainability ethic should pervade all engineering fields. The goal of engineering
education programmes should be to produce engineers who are both technically competent and
environmentally conscious (Hashim, 1994). A sustainability ethic can be thought of as an obligation to the
environment made up of two components - one targeted to pollution prevention and one targeted to pollution
remediation (Wareham and Elefsiniotis, 1995). The first component refers to the belief that environmental
impact assessment, environmental auditing, waste minimization and life- cycle analysis concepts should be
incorporated into all engineering educational programmes regardless of discipline. As implied previously
however, to teach these concepts ~ as engineering techniques. reduces them to technical procedures to
be blindly followed with little questioning of the nature of the human activities.
 Environmental ethics in enginee ring 199

Instead, these concepts should be taught within a philosophical or ethical framework which Intertwines
economic development and environmental impact with principles of equity between cultures, social justice,
~nvironmental responsibility, environmental accountability. and the rights of the organisms of the ecosystem
m a ~ balance with the rights of man. These latter aspects are all ethical considerations which should
act as constraints to shape the engineer's thinking towards a realistic respect for the environment. In essence
what is called for is a paradigm shift, in which engineers by Irainine are promoted as the guardians of
creation rather than the destroyers of creation. Engineers henceforth should be seen as not only having a
duty to serve the public, but also having a duty to serve the natural world in both a professional and ethical
manner. This requires a shift in perception from a narrow, uni-generational focus to a multi-generational,
global focus. In this way, green movements will no longer be allowed to claim exclusive ownership of
ecological concerns.

The concept of development has traditionally been a compromise between what is technically feasible and
what is economically attractive (Mena, 1994). Within an ethical framework which applies social justice to
the rights of all creation, an additional factor which now must be considered is whether the technology is
1D.l1x acceptable on environmental grounds (Mena, 1994). An environmentally-integrated approach
recognizes that the engineering profession at large has an obligation to meet environmental stewardship
goals, especially as they relate to economic development.

The second component of a sustainability ethic is the cultivation of a sense of moral values specifically
related to pollution remediation. Vesiland (1994) is essentially referring to this when he states...

"....public opinion has evolved to where the direct and immediate health effects of environmental
contamination are no longer of primary concern. The cleanliness of streams, not only for the benefit of
human health, but also for lite benefit of the stream itself has become a driving force, and legislation has
been passed that does not focus directly on human health but instead addresses our desire for a clean
environment. Protection of wildlife habitat. the preservation of species and the health of ecosystems have
become valid objectives for the spending of resources. Such a sense of mission, unrelated to human health.
is often referred to as an environmental ethic, which is a major driving force of modem
environmental engineering."

It can be seen from the above that engineers have an additional responsibility to be at the forefront of
movements to clean up pollution, even pollution which does not have a direct link to public health. This
again takes the form of an ethical imperative because pollution-remediation is seen as the III.2W thing to do
(rather than the necessary thing to do because of human health concerns).

A solid grounding in environmental ethics should be a foundational course for all undergraduate engineering
programmes. Engineers may feel uneasy about designating an ethics course as a fundamental skill, primarily
because such courses require substantially less (or a different degree 00 rigour than traditional engineering
courses. It is worth asking however, whether the current environmental crisis has arisen because
environmental ethics has been historically perceived as peripheral to engineering, rather than the foundation
upon which it should be built? Have engineers been guilty of dividing environmental problems into technical
and non-technical areas and then proceeding to act as if the latter area was of minimal importance?

Historically, much of the engineer's Code ofEthics has focused on the practice of engineering as it relates to
(i) the manner in which technical procedures should be executed and (ii) the way in which engineering
professionals should interact. Ethics however is not served if a system is designed in a professional manner
(such that it meets all codes and standards of the day), yet despoils the environment. It is encouraging to see
the recent consideration of an 8 th canon to the ASCE Code of Ethics which recognizes the importance of
sustainable development. Other professional engineering bodies in other countries have or are already in the
process of adopting similar principles to guide future engineering development.

It appears in practice, that professional engineering bodies are moving away from the image of a paid
hireling, employed to do the bidding of society with no thought given to the ecological ramifications of their
activities. As resources dwindle, engineers have realized that engineering activities have the potential to
 200 D. G. WAREHAM and P. ELEFSINIOllS

severely impact the environment and in turn the environment that is created impacts enormously the future
of engineering projects. This cyclical effect makes it important to appreciate the non-technical as well as the
technical issues. It is also apparent that. just as a better job of engineering can be done when formal training
in engineering is provided. so too a better job of making ethical decisions (as they relate to the environment)
can be done when a formal programme in environmental ethics is an integral part of an engineer's training. It
is therefore time that the ethical value of the survival of a species and/or the maintenance of an ecosystem be
considered as an engineering problem. That is, a problem in which the engineer, by virtue of his training. has
the requisite degree of skill to be able to solve. Having therefore provided the rationale and basis for
environmental ethics in engineering programmes, it is now important to specify the contents of a first course
in environmental ethics.

PROPOSED SYLLABUS FOR A FIRST COURSE IN ENVIRONMENTAL

ETHICS

The foIlowing course outline provides a survey of the developing field of environmental ethics and its
applicability to engineering practice. The material presented in the course can be divided into three divisions
which are constructed to foIlow 12 weeks of a 13 week semester (Table I) .

Table I. Suggested syIlabus for environmental ethics course

Week Division and Topic

Part I: Foundations of Environmental Ethics

Weeks 1 and 2 Basic Concepts

Weeks 3 and 4 Ethical Theory and the Enviromnent
Part II: Theories of Environmental Ethics

Week 5 Biocentric Ethics

Week 6 Ecology and Ethics
Week 7 The Land Ethic
Week 8 Deep Ecology and Social Ecology
Part III: Selected Case Studies

Week 9 Air and Water Quality: Acid Rain

Week 10 Nuclear Power
Week 11 Agriculture
Week 12 Economics and Integrated PoIlution Control

Assessment would take the form of 3 tests (correlated to the 3 divisions of the course) and be used to gauge
the comprehension of the material. As weIl, a major term paper would be required on an engineering
development which presented an environmental ethical dilemma. Oral presentation of the paper would
comprise a component of the final mark and these presentations would be given during the 13th week of
classes.

The detailed course outline shown below draws from material presented in part by Hargrove (1989), Berry
(1993) and Desjardens (1993). Part I (Basic Concepts) serves as an introduction to environmental
philosophy by covering the fuIl range of the foundations of environmental ethics as weIl as current
philosophical positions. Part II (Theories of Environmental Ethics) focuses on the theories of environmental
ethics. ranging from biodiversity to social ecology. Part III (Applications of Environmental Ethics in
Engineering Decision-Making Processes) adopts a case-study approach by reviewing examples from various
areas of engineering to illustrate the need for an environmental ethic in creating judicious planning and
developing sound environmental policies.
 Environmental ethics in engineering 201

PART I' Foundations ofenvjronmental ethics

Weeks 1 and 2: basic concepts

Introduction (global environmental challenges, technological "solutions" and environmental policies);

Science and technology without ethics (the "myth" of scientific objectivity. reductionistic approach.
distinction between "facts" and "values");

Ethics without science and technology ("pure" or "abstract" philosophical reasoning, need for "applied" ethics.
usefulness of "empirical" sciences in formulating ethical concepts);

Environmental ethics (definition. roots and historical development); and

Descriptive. normative. and philosophical ethics (definitions. distinction. relation to environmental

controversies and problems).

Weeks 3 and 4: Ethical theory and the environment

Introduction (individual rights and the overall good. need for systems of values of ethical theories. reasons for
studying them);

Ethical relativism (value and "objectivity" of ethical judgments); and

Traditional ethical theories (eg. the natural law or teleological tradition; the utilitarian tradition; deontology
(the ethics of duty and rights etc.l).

PART II: Theories of enyironmental ethics

Week 5: Blocentric ethics

Introduction (the concept of ethical extensiomsm, anthropocentric vs. biocentric ethics. need for the
development of a comprehensive environmental philosophy);

Discussion on values (instrumental value. intrinsic value. inherent worth); and

Biocentric ethics and the reverence for life (Taylor's theory regarding "respect for nature". ethics and
character, practical implications on conflict resolution).

Week 6: Ecology and ethics

Introduction (development of ecological ethics. holistic vs. individualistic ethics, the value and the idea of
wilderness);

Environmentalism and the romantic wilderness myth (preservation (Emerson, Thoreau. Muir) vs. conservation
(Pinchot), influence of the romantic model on current environmental behaviour); and

Ecological models of nature (development and evaluation of the organic. community. and energy models).

Week 7: The land ethic

Introduction (Leopold's theory on resource management, development of the concept of land conservation as a
moral issue);
202 D. G. WAREHAM and P. ELEFSINIOTIS

The land ethic (the concept of "land community", biotic, and land pyramids, holistic or systems view, ethical
holism); and

Criticisms of the land ethic (the move from the facts of ecology to the values of
ethics, ethical implications of holism).

Week 8: Deep ecology and social ecology

Introduction (environmental activism, legal and illegal, "deep" vs. "shallow" environmental perspectives,
sustainable agriculture and the social ecology approach);

Deep ecology (basic principles, the concept of eco-philosophy, metaphysical ecology: individualism vs.
reductionism, from metaphysics to ethics: objectivity vs. subjectivity, biocentric equality); and

Social ecology (human domination and ecological destruction, social structure and its ecological impacts,
notions on "productivity", domination vs. stewardship, eco-feminism),

PARI III: Selected case studies

Week 9: Air and water quality: acid rain

The acid rain debate (chronological development, the scientific complexity of the issue, the impact of the
Stock.holm conferences, resolution);

The wider context (environmental awareness, dealing with uncertainties in environmental decision-making,
"real" vs. "perceived" risk, the precautionary principle); and

The way forward (sustainable environmental management, challenges in matching scientific hypotheses and
policy, global thinking).

Week 10: Nuclear power

Introduction (power supply and demand, control of ionizing radiation, occupational and public health issues,
fuel cycle and conservation, nuclear weapons);

Waste disposal (waste characterization, disposal practises, disposal criteria, evaluation and public concern);
and

Risk of major accidents (critical reflection on recent severe accidents, quantitative risk assessments, usefulness
and moral implications, evaluation of safety standards).

Week JJ: Agriculture

Historical perspective (traditional agriculture, agricultural change, fertilizers, intensive methods, the role of the
state in transforming agricultural practices (subsidies, land use, etc.I)

Dilemma and opportunity ("reversibility" of environmental damage, food production and distribution, social
and economic implications, multiple uses of land); and

Farming and conservation (perceptions of nature, review of the philosophical systems discussed earlier and
their application to agricultural practices, need for new objectives and "new ethics").
 Environmental ethics in engineering 203

Week 12: Economics and integrated pollution control

Introduction (meaning. rationale. and limits of the term "integrated pollution control. residuals management
failures. information on failure. lack of "systems" thinking. institutional failure. lack of appropriate decision
framework. market failures);

Cleaner technology (financial vs. economic viability. the role of ethics in innovation and diffusion of new
technologies. socio-economic implications); and

Comprehensive environmental appraisal (holistic approach. costs and benefits evaluation extending beyond
the monetary value system. development of multi-criteria methods. search for new options and alternatives) .

Week 13: Review and critical reflections

Term paper presentations and discussions .

CONCLUSIONS

Education in engineering should be geared towards creating a paradigm shift in the realm of public perception as it
relates to the interaction between engineers and the environment. Through training in environmental ethics. the new
model of interaction should be one in which the engineer acts in the capacity of a viceroy/steward in charge of
managing pollution prevention and remediation. Training in environmental ethics should be considered as a
fundamental skill taught in all engineering programmes. A suggested outline of a first course in environmental ethics
has been presented.

REFERENCES

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